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The   Influence  Of  Christianity   On  The 
Vocabulary  Of  Old  English  Poetry 


BY 


ALBI RT,  KEISER 

A.  B.  Wartburg  College,  1911 
A.  M.  University  of  Montana,  1915 


Thesis  submitted  in  partial  fulfilment  of  the  requirements  for 

the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  in  English  in  the 

Graduate  School  of  the  University  of  Illinois 

1918 


Reprinted  from  the 
University  of  Illinois  Studies  in  Language  and  Literature,  Vol.  V,  Nos.  1  and  2 


\ 


The   Influence  Of  Christianity   On  The 
Vocabulary  Of  Old  English  Poetry 


BY 


ALBERT  KEISER 

A.  B.  Wartburg  College,  1911 
A.  M.  University  of  Montana,  1915 


Thesis  submitted  in  partial  fulfilment  of  the  requirements  for 

the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  in  English  in  the 

Graduate  School  of  the  University  of  Illinois 

1918 


•»  9 


Reprinted  from  the 
University  of  Illinois  Studies  in  Language  and  Literature,  Vol.  V,  Nos.  1  and  2 


Copyright,  1919, 
By  The  University  of  Illinois 


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CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Preface  5 

Introduction 7 

I    Division  of  the  Human  Race 16 

I.  The  Non-Christians.    II.  The  Christians. 

II    The  Departed  Members  of  the  Church 22 

I.  The  Virgin  Mary.    II.  Patriarchs.     III.  Prophets.     IV.  Apostles. 
V.    Martyrs.    VI.  Saints.' 

III  Ecclesiastical  Offices 31 

IV  Church  Buildlngs 38 

V    Festivals  and  Holy  Seasons 42 

VI    The  Spiritual  Side  of  the  Church 46 

I.    Worship.     II.  The  Sacraments.     III.  The  Scriptures. 

VII    The  Deity 59 

I.  Wyrd.  II.  The  Term  God.  III.  The  Trinity.  IV.  The  Godhead 
and  God  the  Father.  V.  Qualities.  VI.  Gifts.  VII.  Christ.  VIII. 
The  Holy  Ghost. 

VIII    The  World,  Angels,  and  Devils 89 

LX    Sen 98 

I.  General  Terms.  II.  Peccata  Operis.  III.  Peccata  Oris.  IV.  Pec- 
cata  Cordis. 

X    Faith,  Conversion,  Penance 110 

XI    Christian  Virtues,  Qualities,  and  Good  Works 115 

XII    The  Future  Life 122 

I.  Judgment  Day  and  Purgatory.     II.  Heaven.     III.  Hell 

Poetical  Words 132 

Loan  Words  and  Hybrids 138 

Titles  and  Abbreviations 140 

I.  Titles  and  Abbreviations  Referring  to  the  Bibliothek  der  angelsach- 
sischen  Poesie,  Volumes  I-III,  by  Grein-Wuelker. 

II.  Other  Abbreviations. 

Bibliography 142 

Index 144 


l< 


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PREFACE 

In  undertaking  to  present  the  influence  of  Christianity  on  the  vocabu- 
lary of  Old  English  poetry,  we  have  attempted  for  Old  English  what  Rau- 
mer  and  Kahle  have  done  for  Old  High  German  and  Old  Norse.  A  similar 
investigation,  but  including  the  prose,  was  begun  by  MacGillivray,  who 
published  the  '1st  Half  of  Part  P  in  1902.  No  continuation  has  ever 
appeared,  and  in  a  letter  of  December  2,  1916,  the  author  states  that 
certain  circumstances  had  led  to  "the  complete  shipwreck  of  my  hopes  for 
the  completion  of  my  book."  His  consent  to  take  up  the  work  was 
obtained. 

After  a  careful  survey  of  the  field  it  did  not  seem  advisable  to  continue 
the  investigation  according  to  the  plan  of  MacGillivray,  whose  four  chap- 
ters, corresponding  to  our  first  three,  take  up  171  pages.  It  was  limited 
to  the  poetry  as  the  more  promising  and  profitable  field.  Neither  could  it 
be  our  intention  to  go  to  such  lengths  as  our  predecessor  had  done,  for  the 
generally  favorable  reviews  of  his  work  point  out  the  diffuseness  from  which 
it  suffers.  We  note  E.  Bjorkman's  remark  Litbl.  XXV,  p.  235:  "Nicht 
gerade  nachahmenswert  finde  ich  die  ermiidende  Weitschweifigkeit,  womit 
allbekannte  Dinger  bis  ins  kleinste  Detail  auseinandergesetzt  werden. 
Wenn  man  alles  in  der  Wissenschaft  so  weit  ausfiihrte,  ware  es  doch  zu 
schlimm!",  as  also  in  A.  Pogatscher's  appreciative  review,  E.  St.  XXXII, 
p.  390:  "Die  arbeit  leidet  unter  einer  geradezu  ermiidenden  breite  und 
weitschweifigkeit . ' ' 

From  our  complete  collections  we  have  given  in  many  instances,  espe- 
cially in  the  case  of  rare  words,  all  occurrences  noted.  Otherwise  the 
examples  were  carefully  selected  with  a  view  of  illustrating  characteristic 
features.  Occasionally  unimportant  terms  could  be  omitted  without  loss. 
For  the  sake  of  completeness,  the  more  important  kennings  have  also  been 
included;  however,  in  view  of  their  large  number  and  the  special  studies 
devoted  to  them,  sometimes  only  selections  have  been  given.  But  our 
lists,  excepting  the  names  of  the  Deity,  are  more  extensive  than  those  of 
other  scholars.  Where  the  Old  English  poems  have  a  Latin  source,  in  many 
cases  the  Latin  equivalents,  especially  from  the  Psalms  and  Doomsday, 
were  added.  The  quotations  from  the  Hymnus  De  Die  Jiidicii  refer  to 
Loehe's  edition,  while  for  Juliana  and  Elene  Strunk  and  Kent  have  been 
used.  Grein-Wuelker's  Bibliothek  der  angelsachsischen  Poesie  forms  the 
basis  of  our  textual  study,  though  in  many  cases  editions  of  single  poems 
have  also  been  consulted.     Unless  otherwise  indicated,  all  quotations  of 


6  PREFACE  [6 

Old  English  poetry  are  from  the  Bibliothek,  the  arabic  numbers  referring  to 
lines,  except  in  the  case  of  the  Psalms,  where  the  verse  is  given.  However, 
references  to  Ps.  L.  (Cottoniana)  are  to  lines. 

As  to  the  most  satisfactory  arrangement  of  the  material,  there  may  be  a 
difference  of  opinion.  We  have  been  guided  by  similar  efforts  in  the  related 
languages,  and  though  the  plan  is  not  without  defects,  no  radical  depar- 
ture seemed  advisable,  as  the  loss  would  have  been  greater  than  the  gain. 
For  the  sake  of  comparison  the  plan  also  recommended  itself,  which 
since  Raumer  has  been  adopted  by  Kahle  in  his  two  investigations,  by 
MacGillivray,  and  for  the  Romance  loan  words  of  Chaucer  by  Remus. 

In  the  prosecution  of  the  work,  especially  for  checking  up,  Grein's 
Sprachschatz,  in  spite  of  its  numerous  omissions  and  mistakes,  has  been  of 
great  value.  Bosworth-T oiler  and  Clark  Hall,  the  latter  also  for  poetic 
terms,  have  been  very  helpful.  In  regard  to  etymologies  the  New  English 
Dictionary  has  been  chiefly  drawn  upon  for  a  conservative  statement  of 
facts,  as  it  could  not  be  our  purpose  to  advance  questionable  theories  for 
the  solution  of  difficulties. 

As  the  great  world  war  affected  communications  with  Germany,  and 
our  own  entrance  prevented  intercourse  altogether,  no  literature  pertaining 
to  our  subject  that  may  have  appeared  in  that  country  since  1915  could  be 
consulted. 

In  closing,  the  author  takes  this  opportunity  to  express  his  appreciation 
of  the  help  he  has  received  from  others.  Profs.  H.  S.  V.  Jones,  H.  L.  Creek, 
and  J.  Zeitlin  have  offered  some  helpful  suggestions,  Prof.  Zeitlin  also 
reading  the  galley  proof.  From  its  inception  to  its  completion  the  work 
was  under  the  supervision  of  Prof.  D.  K.  Dodge,  who  was  also  kind  enough 
to  look  over  the  proof  sheets. 

Albert  Keiser. 

Beloit,  Wis.,  July  22,  1919. 


INTRODUCTION 

Great  spiritual  movements  as  the  embodiment  of  new  ideas  and  con- 
ceptions are  bound  to  influence  the  language  or  languages  which  serve  as 
the  medium  of  their  expression.  Thus  Christianity  in  its  attempt  to  reveal 
ultimate  truth  in  the  speech  of  man  has  fashioned  to  a  considerable  extent 
the  instrument  for  conveying  its  meaning.  Either  old  material  is  utilized 
and  takes  on  a  new  meaning,  or  a  new  word  is  created  or  adopted  with 
the  new  idea. 

The  religion  of  Christ  first  finds  adequate  expression  in  the  highly 
developed  and  flexible  Greek,  a  language  capable  in  a  remarkable  degree 
of  conveying  all  the  finer  shades  of  meaning  and  therefore  admirably  suited 
to  serve  as  the  means  of  propagating  a  spiritual  religion.  A  fitting  vehicle 
for  the  Jewish-Christian  doctrines  is  provided  in  the  New  Testament 
Koiv-q,  while  later  the  Alexandrian  School  with  the  help  of  philosophy 
creates  a  distinctly  Christian  terminology.  Simultaneously  Christian 
ideas  seek  expression  in  the  less  flexible  Latin,  which,  especially  in  the 
hands  of  Tertullian,  is  molded  and  enriched  by  ecclesiastical  terms.  In 
both  cases  a  highly  developed  language  with  a  wealth  of  expressions  and 
a  literature  of  centuries  becomes  the  garb  in  which  the  new  conceptions 
appear. 

In  a  certain  sense  the  same  story  repeats  itself  as  nation  after  nation 
embraces  the  new  faith,  though  the  mental  and  spiritual  plane  of  con- 
verted tribes  not  seldom  necessitates  the  taking  over  of  many  new  terms, 
where  the  language  does  not  even  possess  words  of  an  analogous  character. 
Missionaries  to  the  American  Indians  and  to  some  Polynesian  tribes 
can  testify  as  to  the  poverty  of  suitable  native  terms  for  the  new  spiritual 
ideas.    To  a  great  extent  the  medium  of  expression  has  to  be  created. 

Among  the  Germanic  tribes  the  Goths  fall  first  under  the  sway  of  the 
Gospel,  and  the  remnants  of  Ulfilas'  translation  of  the  Bible  bear  testimony 
as  to  how  the  great  bishop  sought  to  express  the  new  ideas.  The  native 
material  is  utilized  to  a  very  large  extent,  surprisingly  few  foreign  words 
being  adopted.1  Old  terms  take  on  a  new  significance,  and  new  forms  are 
created  where  the  language  is  deficient. 

However,  when  we  consider  the  influence  of  Christianity  on  the  vocabu- 
lary of  the  Germanic  languages,  we  are  confronted  with  a  difficulty. 
Greek  and  Latin  can  boast  of  literatures  antedating  the  Christian  era  by 
centuries,  and  we  know  in  each  case  the  exact  meaning  and  connotation 

1  Compare  Weinhold,  Die  Gotische  Sprache  im  Dienste  des  Christenlums. 


8  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [8 

which  a  word  had  in  heathen  times.  Hence  the  transformation  in  meaning, 
or  the  acquisition  of  a  new  connotation,  can  generally  be  observed.  Less 
fortunate  is  the  situation  in  regard  to  the  Germanic  dialects,  where,  with 
the  partial  exception  of  Old  Norse,  the  negligible  remains  from  heathen 
times  preclude  such  observation  and  detailed  proof  in  all  but  rare  instances. 
In  Old  English  and  the  related  languages  the  poetical  remnants  of  the 
early  Christian  period  do  not  fairly  represent  the  actual  literature,  since 
the  works  preserved  'have  escaped  total  destruction  only  by  a  series  of 
lucky  chances. '  If  we  had  only  the  more  important  pieces  of  the  doubtless 
flourishing  Christian  literature,  the  influence  of  Christianity  would  appear 
to  be  much  greater  than  it  is  possible  to  trace  under  the  existing  conditions. 
The  large  number  of  comparatively  rare  poetical  terms  in  Old  English, 
however,  cannot  be  adduced  as  strong  corroborative  evidence,  since  many 
of  them  may  be  due  to  the  invention  of  an  individual.2 

In  their  continental  home  the  tribes  which  later  settled  in  Britain  were 
not  entirely  ignorant  of  Christianity.  The  contact  of  the  Goths  with 
Christian  culture  and  their  christianization  seem  to  have  passed  on  a  few 
conceptions  and  terms  to  other  Germanic  tribes,,  where  they  gain  a  firm 
hold.  We  may  point  to  Old  English  cirice,  engel,  deofol,  and  possibly  also 
to  biscop,  as  representatives  of  this  class.  In  the  case  of  cirice  the  term 
becomes  so  firmly  rooted  that  the  Latin  ecclesia  is  unable  to  supplant  it. 
Contact  with  other  tribes  more  influenced  by  Christianity,  communication 
with  Gaul,  as  also  the  raids  on  the  "Saxon  shore"  of  Britain,  in  which  the 
wealth  and  ornaments  of  churches  and  monasteries  formed  part  of  the 
spoil,  would  further  add  to  the  Anglo-Saxons'  knowledge  of  Christianity. 
The  few  acquired  terms  are  carried  along  to  the  new  island  home. 

From  all  appearances  the  old  heathen  religion  still  had  a  strong  hold 
on  the  new-comers.  They  clung  firmly  to  the  traditions  of  their  Teutonic 
paganism,  and  the  Christian  Britons  made  no  impression  on  the  religious 
conceptions  of  their  conquerors.  In  the  words  of  Bright,3  "it  might  even 
seem  that  their  very  successes  had  hardened  them  in  antipathy  to  the 
religion  of  the  Cross."  Not  even  an  attempt  to  evangelize  the  detested 
barbarians  seems  to  have  been  made  by  the  Britons.4  Later,  when  St. 
Augustine's  visit  furnished  an  opportunity  to  co-operate  in  the  christian- 
ization, they  also  stood  aloof.  Too  little  is  known  about  the  condition  of  the 
Britons  at  the  time  of  the  Saxon  conquest  to  warrant  any  safe  conclusion 
as  to  whether  Vulgar  Latin  was  spoken  to  any  great  extent  in  the  conquered 
island.  Extreme  positions  have  been  maintained  by  different  scholars. 
After  a  review  of  the  literature  on  the  subject,  we  may  accept  as  a  con- 

1  See  the  list  of  poetical  words  on  p.  132  ff. 
*  Chapters  on  Early  English  Church  History,  p.  38. 

*Bede,  Hisloria  Ecclesiastica,  Book  I,  ch.  22:  Addebant  .  .  .  ut  numquam  genii  Saxo- 
num  .  .  .  verbum  fidei  praedicando  committer ent. 


9]  INTRODUCTION  9 

servative  statement  Remus'  summary:5  "Wahrend  in  anderen  romi- 
schen  Provinzen,  z.B.  Gallien,  fur  die  Gesammtbevolkerung  die  lingua 
rustica  Lebensbedingung  war  und  daher  allgemein  gebrauchlich  wurde,  er- 
hielt  sie  sich  auf  der  pazifizierten  Insel  nur  in  den  grosseren  oder  kleineren 
Kulturzentren  und  vielleicht  auch  langs  der  das  Land  durchquerenden  Heer- 
strassen  sowie  im  ganzen  Siiden  und  Westen  des  Mittellandes. "  Whatever 
the  facts  in  the  case  may  be,  nobody  has  been  able  to  show  any  appreciable 
influence  of  Celtic  on  the  Old  English  Christian  vocabulary  during  the 
period  that  preceded  the  coming  of  the  Roman  missionaries.6  The  Chris- 
tian Britons  refused  to  give  the  blessings  of  the  Gospel  to  barbarous 
idolaters  at  whose  hands  they  had  cruelly  suffered,  while  the  heathen 
victors  scorned  to  stoop  to  the  god  or  gods  who  had  been  unable  to  protect 
their  devotees  against  the  strong  hand  of  Wodan  and  his  votaries.  The 
result  is  that  practically  no  addition  is  made  to  the  Christian  vocabulary 
of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  though  one  cannot  help  believing  that  the  inevitable 
contact  with  some  external  features  of  Christianity  served  to  keep  alive 
certain  ideas  and  terms.7 

It  seems  that  about  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  the  Roman  missionaries 
the  polytheistic  religion  had  begun  to  lose  its  hold  upon  the  thinking  men 
of  at  least  some  of  the  tribes.  The  circumstances  surrounding  the  con- 
version of  Northumbria  suggest  that  the  old  religion  no  longer  satisfied 
their  needs,  a  fact  plainly  apparent  from  the  speeches  of  Coifi  and  one  of 
the  chief  councilors.  The  rapidity  with  which  Christianity  was  adopted 
would  point  in  the  same  direction.8  Contact  with.  Christian  ideas  had 
begun  to  undermine  the  old  paganism  and  to  hasten  the  process  of 
degeneration. 

Before  turning  our  attention  to  the  Latin  influence,  we  may  briefly 
survey  the  coming  of  Aidan  and  his  missionaries  to  Northumbria,  with  its 
opening  up  of  a  wide  field  for  speculation  as  to  the  influence  upon  the 
language.  After  an  examination  of  the  facts  it  will  hardly  cause  surprise 
when  the  Celtic  influence  is  found  to  be  negligible.9  With  a  proper  appre- 
ciation of  the  noble  and  fruitful  work  accomplished  by  the  Celtic  mis- 
sionaries, we  cannot  help  agreeing  with  Bright:10  "His  (Aidan's)  relation 
to  English  Christianity  on  a  whole  has  indeed  been  somewhat  seriously 
overrated,  whether  on  account  of  his  rare  merits  or  from  the  controversial 
instinct  of  underrating  our  religious  obligations  to  Italy."    The  inefficient 

5  Die  kirchlichen  und  speziell-wissenschafllichen  Romanischen  Lehnworle  Chancers,  p.  6. 
Literature  on  pp.  4-6. 

6  On  the  Celtic  influence  in  general  see  Kluge,  Paul's  Grundriss,  I,  p.  928  f . 

7  Compare  Pogatscher,  pp.  11-12.    He  also  points  to  communications  with  Gaul. 

8  Hunt,  The  English  Church,  p.  13. 

9  Kluge,  Paul's  Grundriss,  I,  p.  930,  remarks:  "Dass  teilweise  irische  Missionare  das 
Evangelium  verkundeten,  lasst  sich  an  Lehnmaterialien  nicht  zur  Gewissheit  erheben." 

10  Early  English  Church  History,  p.  160. 


10  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [10 

organization  coupled  with  the  craving  for  meditation  in  secluded  cloisters, 
from  which  the  monks  emerged  at  intervals  to  perform  the  sacred  rites  of 
religion  before  the  masses,  was  not  favorable  to  a  pronounced  influence 
upon  a  foreign  tongue.  The  steady  recruiting  from  Iona  made  the  mastery 
of  the  vernacular  at  best  uncertain,  necessitating  the  constant  employment 
of  interpreters.  We  would  not  deny  the  probability  of  some  influence  on 
Old  English,  but  whatever  it  was,  it  has  left  scarcely  any  trace.  Dry,  m., 
magician,  exemplified  by  syddan  him  geblendan  biter  e  tosomne  /  dry  as 
park  dwolcrceft  dryne  unheorne,  And.  34,  and  scegde  (Simon  regarding 
Christ's  chosen  thegns")  hy  dryas  waron,  Jul.  301,  may  be  due  to  Old  Irish 
drui,  but  this  cannot  be  claimed  for  other  words.11  In  some  respects  the 
case  is  analogous  to  that  of  the  English  missionaries  in  German}'-,  of  which 
Raumer  says,  p.  279:  "Ohne  Zweifel  hat  die  Angelsachsische  Mutter- 
sprache  des  Bonifacius  und  seiner  Genossen  auch  auf  ihre  Hochdeutsche 
Predigt  Einfluss  geiibt.  Dieser  Einfluss  ist  jedoch  meist  so  versteckt,  dass 
er  sich  mit  Bestimmtheit  weder  behaupten  noch  laugnen  lasst, "  and  on 
the  same  page:  "In  ihren  Predigten  sind  sie  sicherlich  oft  genug  ins 
Angelsachsische  verfallen.  Allein  die  Hochdeutsche  Sprache  hat  diese 
Angelsachsischen  Elemente  in  ihre  Wortmasse  ent weder  gar  nicht  auf- 
genommen  oder,  wo  sie  es  in  einzelnen  Fallen  tat,  sich  dieselben  vollig 
assimiliert."  In  our  case  we  must  remember  that  the  two  dialects  are  not 
closely  related  at  all.  At  all  events,  after  thirty  short  years  the  Celtic 
influence  was  struck  its  deathblow  by  the  Roman  triumph  at  the  synod  of 
Whitby,  664,  and  though  it  lingered  for  some  time  after  Colman's  depar- 
ture, it  may  safely  be  dismissed  from  further  consideration. 

The  official  attitude  of  the  Roman  Church  toward  heathen  worship  was 
tolerant  in  a  remarkable  degree.  Gregory  deliberately  adopted  it  on 
principle,12  which  some  may  be  inclined  to  judge  more  charitably  than 
does  J.  Earle,  who  also  remarks  about  the  purpose  behind  the  writing  of 
Gregory's  dialogues:13  "It  (the  book)  reflects  the  policy  of  converting  the 
barbarians  by  condescending  to  their  tastes,  and  belongs  to  the  same 
system  as  that  increase  of  pomp  and  ceremony  which  was  due  to  the  same 
motive. "    It  was  a  deliberate  attempt  to  make  Christianity  attractive  to 

11  Kluge,  Paul's  Grundriss,  I,  p.  929,  says:  "An  keltischen  Lehnworten  zeigt  das  Angel- 
sachsische einige  religiose  wie  dr$,  '  Zauberer '  =  altir.  drui,  sdcerd  =  air.  sacerd  .  .  .  auch  das 
t  von  ae.  Crist  deutet  im  Zusammenhange  mit  der  eben  vorgefuhrten  kirchlichen  Terminologie 
auf  air.  Crist,"  and  further:  "In  einigen  Fallen  mag — bei  etymologischer  Klarheit— Zweifel 
bestehen  iiber  die  eigentliche  Quelle  von  englischen  Worten  .  .  .  ae.  celmesse,  obi.  almessan 
diirfte  sich  naher  an  altir.  almsan  anschliessen  als  an  die  kontinentaldeutschen  Entlehnungen 
aus  rom.  almosna =lat.  eleemosyne;  vielleicht  auch  ae.  munuc  naher  an  altir.  monach  als  an 
ahd.  munih. "  But  the  form  of  these  words  may  just  as  well  be  explained  otherwise.  Com- 
pare Pogatscher,  16,  17,  37,  38. 

n  Compare  chapter  IV,  75. 

13  Anglo-Saxon  Literature,  London,  1884,  p.  17. 


11]  INTRODUCTION  11 

the  new  converts,  a  policy  fraught  with  danger.  According  to  Hunt,14 
"it  seems  probable  that  the  heathenish  and  superstitious  practices  against 
which  the  Church  had  to  struggle  so  long  in  this  as  in  other  Teutonic 
lands,  would  have  died  out  more  rapidly  if  the  missionaries  had  from  the 
first  insisted  that  their  converts  should  forsake  everything  connected  with 
their  former  paganism,"  and  p.  93:  "Many  nominal  Christians  must  have 
looked  upon  the  religion  of  Christ  rather  as  an  addition  to  the  old  beliefs 
of  their  race  than  as  wholly  incompatible  with  them." 

But  scant  remains  of  the  heathen  beliefs  and  the  heathen  terms  have 
come  down  to  us.  Bede,  for  instance,  shows  a  certain  reluctance  to  discuss 
the  subject  of  Anglo-Saxon  heathenism,  though  he  was  probably  in  a 
position  to  reveal  much  more  than  he  actually  does.  In  the  poetry  only 
a  few  of  the  heathen  terms,  which  would  be  utilized  by  the  new  religion, 
have  come  to  our  notice.  A  few  of  these  may  be  taken  up  here.  In  the 
case  of  eastor  the  heathen  connotation  must  have  been  gradually  lost, 
supplanted  by  an  exclusively  Christian  one.  Ealh,  a  word  denoting  a 
holy  place,  a  temple,  keeps  the  heathen  meaning  in  the  compound  eolh- 
stedas,  while  the  simple  term  is  twice  applied  to  Solomon's  temple.  Hearg, 
mf.,  ON.  hqrgr,  OHG.  harug,  is  found  a  number  of  times,  swylce  se  halga 
herigeas  (shrines)  preade,  And.  1687,  onhnigon  to  pam  herige  h<zdne  peode, 
Dan.  181,  hergas  breotap,  /  fyllad  andfeogad,  Cr.  485-6,  cwtzd,p<zt  his  hergas 
(idols)  hyrran  war  on  j  and  mihtigran  mannum  to  fride,  /  ponne  Isrdela  ece 
drihten,  Dan.  715-17,  hcedene  herigweardas  (priests),  And.  1124.  Lac  is 
used  to  designate  Old  Testament  and  Christian  sacrifices,  in  the  latter 
case  referring  to  the  mass,  though  originally  the  term  would  seem  to  have 
had  an  exclusively  heathen  significance.  So  also  wlh  with  its  compounds. 
Husl  never  refers  to  heathen  sacrifices,  but  it  is  probable  that  this  old 
Teutonic  stem  was  not  without  a  definite  heathen  connotation  at  an 
earlier  time.  In  the  case  of  wyrd  we  observe  that  the  mythological  force 
has  been  lost  almost  completely.  The  word  takes  a  twofold  development 
under  Christian  influence,  being  used  in  the  sense  of  God  and  predestina- 
tion and  in  that  of  the  fallen  angel  or  devil.  Other  terms,  such  as  keofon 
and  hel,  receive  a  fuller  and  deeper  significance. 

When  Latin  Christianity  with  its  splendid  organization  and  its  empha- 
sis upon  external  representation  became  dominant,  the  influence  exerted 
upon  the  language  was  tremendous.  As  far  as  our  subject,  the  Old  English 
poetry,  is  concerned,  it  will  be  mirrored  in  the  large  number  of  words 
directly  borrowed,  translated,  or  closely  imitated.  A  careful  count  of  all 
religious  terms  reveals  that  the  Latin  loan  words  comprise  almost  five  per 
cent.'5  Here  of  course  the  several  hundred  Biblical  proper  names,  which 
have  entered  Old  English  through  Latin,  are  not  included.    The  importance 

14  The  English  Church,  p.  33. 

15  See  list  of  Loan  Words  and  Hybrids  on  p.  138  f. 


12  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [12 

of  the  Latin  loan  words,  however,  is  greater  than  the  numbers  indicate. 
Partly  at  least  the  adopted  words  are  terms  for  the  more  striking  external 
features  of  Christianity,  though  those  for  spiritual  conceptions  are  not 
lacking.  Naturally  in  some  cases  certain  manifestations  of  Christianity 
were  so  foreign  to  the  heathen  mind  that  no  appropriate  native  terms 
could  be  utilized. 

However,  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  native  material  has  been  used* 
though  not  seldom  the  Latin  term  is  either  translated  or  closely  imitated. 
Halig  gdst,  hellewlte,  dnboren,  dncenned,  efenece,  efenwesende,  dnnes,  prynes, 
bee,  gewritu,  tffenldc,  and  others  belong  here.  In  such  terms  the  triumph  of 
Christianity  over  the  old  beliefs  is  clearly  mirrored.  The  original  meaning 
of  ethical  designations  could  be  modified  and  the  expressions  serve  in  a 
new  capacity.  Here  belong  a  number  of  words  referring  to  virtue,  such 
as  milde,  which  at  first  probably  meant  liberal  in  a  secular  sense,  while 
later  it  assumed  also  a  distinctly  religious  connotation.  In  this  case,  as 
also  in  that  of  lufu,  a  new  religious  meaning  is  added  to  the  old  secular  one, 
which  is  kept.  The  native  terms  for  sin  and  sinful  states  are  extremely 
numerous,  which  would  of  course,  as  Abbetmeyer  has  pointed  out,16  indicate 
a  deep  sense  of  man's  moral  perversity;  we  note  that  these  expressions  are 
almost  without  exception  native,  and  this  seems  to  give  support  to  the 
assumption  that  the  ethical  ideas  of  the  heathen  Anglo-Saxon  tribes  were 
not  on  such  a  low  plane  as  some  would  have  us  believe.  Though  the 
'Teutonic  mind  had  of  course  no  conception  of  innate  moral  weakness, 'l7 
a  point  of  departure  for  the  expression  of  the  loftier  conceptions  of  Chris- 
tianity must  have  existed.  This  must  be  firmly  maintained  against  the 
opinions  of  those  who  hold  the  heathen  Anglo-Saxons  destitute  of  every 
'virtue'  except  courage.18 

The  new  religion  was  taken  into  the  life  of  the  people,  and  in  many 
respects  adapted  to  their  mode  of  thinking.  As  Ferrell19  well  remarks: 
"  God,  angels  and  devils  become  Teutonic  heroes  with  all  the  virtues  and 
vices  of  the  same,  and  Heaven  and  hell  show  well-marked  traces  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  way  of  thinking  before  the  introduction  of  Christianity. 
As  the  poets  draw  the  Christian  religion  as  well  as  all  that  belongs  to  it 
within  the  horizon  that  bounds  their  own  life,  it  becomes  to  them  and  their 
hearers  a  real  religion — a  Germanic  religion — to  which  they  can  devote 
themselves  body  and  soul,  inasmuch  as  they  can  feel  that  it  is  thoroughly 
their  own."  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  Teutonic  influence  is  not  seldom 
invoked  where  other  factors  must  be  taken  into  account,  this  molding  of 
the  Christian  ideas  plays  a  large  part.    To  cite  a  few  instances.    As  cruci- 

18  Poetical  Motives,  p.  36. 

17  Ibid.,  p.  5. 

18  Compare  chapter  on  Sin,  329  ff. 

19  Teutonic  Antiquities,  p.  8. 


13]  INTRODUCTION  13 

fixion  is  unknown  to  the  Anglo-Saxons,  galga  not  seldom  serves  as  a  designa- 
tion for  the  cross.  Christ  is  the  people's  king,  viewed  as  the  guardian  of 
his  adherents  and  the  dispenser  of  bountiful  gifts,  an  idea  very  dear  to  the 
minds  of  the  men.  The  wholly  new  thought  of  a  strong  and  powerful 
Redeemer  made  a  very  strong  appeal  to  the  Germanic  imagination.  In 
some  of  the  poems,  notably  Christ,  his  eminence  is  all-overshadowing, 
while  the  Godhead  and  God  the  Father  play  a  minor  role.  In  poems  dealing 
with  Old  Testament  history  and  even  in  the  Psalms  Christ  is  introduced 
almost  as  a  matter  of  course.  After  an  examination  of  all  the  poetry  one 
cannot  get  rid  of  the  feeling  that  terms  applied  to  the  Godhead  may  often 
more  specifically  refer  to  Christ.  Not  seldom  he  appears  where  one  would 
not  expect  his  presence.  We  note  two  passages  in  the  paraphrasing  of  the 
Lord's  Prayer,  which  may  indicate  the  difficulty  of  distinguishing  between 
the  persons  of  the  Trinity  if  clear  statements  as  in  this  case  do  not  occur. 
In  elaborating  Qui  es  in  cells,  the  poet  tells  L.  Prayer  III,  12,  that  the 
angels  clypiad  to  Criste,  while  L.  Prayer  II,  1-5  runs,  Pater  noster,  qui  es  in 
celis.  I  Fader  mamicynnes ,  frofres  ic  pe  bidde,  /  halig  drihten,  pu  fie  on 
heofonum  eart;  /  Sanctificetur  nomen  tiium,  /  pact  sy  gehalgod,  hygecrceftum 
foest,  J  pin  nama  nu  da,  neriende  Crist,  /  in  urwm  ferhfilocan  jceste  gestadelod. 
At  times  the  Son  is  even  identified  v/ith  the  Father  and  the  Holy  Ghost 
or  is  called  Son  and  Father  at  the  same  time.  These  and  other  daring 
statements  must  not  be  interpreted  as  heresy,  as  they  are  nothing  more 
than  expressions  of  the  emphasis  or  overemphasis  placed  upon  Christ. 
And  to  call,  for  instance,  Melchisedec  a  bishop  and  the  three  youths  in  the 
fiery  furnace  masspriests,  is  simply  due  to  unhistorical  thinking  and  to 
local  color.  So  the  appearance  of  the  apostles,  martyrs,  etc.,  as  retainers 
of  the  heavenly  king,  is  nothing  more  than  an  uncritical  application  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  political  system  to  other  nations  and  conditions.  The  idea 
of  the  Christian  as  servant,  plow,  was  less  sympathetic,  though  it  occurs. 
As  to  the  former  idea,  the  spiritual  warfare  described  in  the  Bible,  the 
Latin  designation  of  the  faithful  as  miles  Christi,  and  similar  terms,  would 
furnish  the  poet  a  welcome  suggestion  for  further  elaboration  and 
invention. 

The  great  number  of  kennings  for  religious  conceptions  would  seem  to 
call  for  a  brief  discussion.  That  metrical  necessities  and  alliteration 
account  for  many,  is  without  doubt.  In  Bode's  words,20  "Kenningar 
.  .  .  dienen  namentlich  zum  Flicken,  zum  Weiterkommen. "  Rankin  well 
illustrates  this  in  regard  to  the  variations  from  the  Latin  pattern,  giving 
terms  which  actually  occur.21  "For  such  variation,  the  chief  causes  lay  in 
the  demands  of  alliteration  and  metre  in  Anglo-Saxon  verse.  For  example, 
instead  of  dryhten  in  the  common  phrase  weoroda  dryhten  (dominus  exer- 

20  Kenningar,  p.  14. 

21  Kennings,  VIII,  p.  396  f. 


14  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [14 

cituum)  an  author  might  need  a  word  beginning  with  sc  and  so  substitute 
scyppend,  making  a  new  phrase  weoroda  scyppend,  or  he  might  need  a  word 
beginning  with  w  and  substitute  wealdend  or  wuldorcyning,  producing  the 
new  phrases  weoroda  wealdend  or  weoroda  wuldorcyning;  or  instead  of 
dryhten  in  the  phrase  engla  dryhten  (dominus  angelorum)  he  might  need  a 
word  beginning  with  b  and  substitute  brego,  or  a  word  beginning  with  w 
and  substitute  weard  if  he  desired  one  syllable  or  wealdend  if  he  desired 
two;  or,  instead  of  cyning  in  the  phrase  wuldres  cyning  (rex  gloriae)  he 
might  need  a  word  beginning  with  a  vowel  and  substitute  agend;  or, 
instead  of  dryhten  in  the  phrase  ece  dryhten,  he  might  need  a  word  with  w 
and  substitute  wealdend." 

This  general  method  is  of  course  just  as  applicable  where  the  poet  had 
no  Latin  pattern  before  him.  The  kennings  employed  are  not  felt  by  the 
poet  in  their  original  meaning,  being  applied  in  a  purely  conventional 
fashion.  Often  they  are  not  only  not  appropriate,  but  decidedly  out  of 
place.  So  se  eadega  wer  serves  Gen.  1562  as  a  designation  for  the  intoxicated 
Noah,  2232  for  Abraham  who  has  intercourse  with  Hagar;  regarding  the 
destruction  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  it  is  said,  1924-6,  od  poet  nergend  god  / 
for  wera  synnum  wylme  gesealde  /  Sodoman  and  Gemorran,  sweartan  lige, 
and  Sat.  85-6  the  words  are  put  into  the  mouth  of  Satan,  ic  wolde  tower  pan 
wuldres  leoman,  /  beam  helendes.  In  Elene  846  the  author  thoughtlessly 
speaks  of  sigebeamas.  III.,  the  crosses  of  the  two  thieves  being  included,  etc. 

As  to  the  origin  of  the  kennings  there  may  be  a  difference  of  opinion. 
Rankin  thinks  that  "for  the  great  majority  of  terms  for  religious  concep- 
tions .  .  .  there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  Latin  origins."22  Undoubtedly 
Latin  exerted  a  powerful  influence  in  shaping  the  religious  vocabulary  of 
Old  English  poetry,  as  the  terms  from  the  Psalms  and  from  poems  pat- 
terned after  the  Latin  show,  though  the  poets  do  not  follow  the  original 
slavishly.  But  Rankin  goes  too  far  in  his  emphasis  upon  the  Latin  influence 
by  ascribing  such  kennings  as  cyning,  dryhten,  helm,  weard,  hyrde,  and  a 
host  of  others  to  Latin,  and  by  suspecting  a  Latin  source  for  almost  any 
kenning  that  occurs,  though  he  might  be  unable  to  find  the  Latin  equiva- 
lent. Such  an  assumption  denies  on  insufficient  grounds  initiative  and 
imagination  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  poets.  We  heartily  subscribe  to  his  less 
daring  statements,  "that  such  a  classification  of  kennings  as  borrowed, 
native,  and  common  Germanic,  is  necessarily  simply  tentative  and  a  matter 
of  probabilities,"23  that  "a  Latin  equivalent  does  not  in  every  instance 
necessarily  mean  a  direct  Latin  source,"24  and  that  he  does  not  maintain 
"that  in  every  case  where  an  exact  equivalent  does  occur  the  Anglo-Saxon 
kenning  is  necessarily  derived  from  the  Latin  and  could  not  possibly  have 

22  Ibid.  p.  358. 

23  Ibid.,  p.  366. 

M  Ibid.,  as  above. 


15]  INTRODUCTION  15 

had  an  independent  origin."25  However,  in  his  detailed  discussion  he 
often  becomes  dogmatic,  seemingly  forgetting  the  principles  he  himself 
has  laid  down.  Though  it  would  be  folly  to  underestimate  the  tremendous 
Latin  influence,  Bode26  not  inappropriately  speaks  about  "den  geringen 
unanzweifelbaren  Ergebnissen,  die  die  Litteraturgeschichte  von  derartigen 
Vergleichungen  bisher  gehabt  hat,  wiewohl  doch  so  viele  Litteratur- 
historiker  von  einem  krankhaften  Eifer  befallen  sind,  mit  Hiilfe  der 
beliebten,  aber  unsicheren  Methode,  aus  Ahnlichkeiten  auf  Einwirkungen 
zu  schliessen,  iiberall  neue  Entdeckungen  zu  machen." 

But  whether  borrowed  or  native,  whether  molded  or  newly  formed,  the 
extremely  large  number  of  religious  terms  in  the  poetry  shows  conclusively 
the  great  part  the  new  religion  played  in  the  life  of  the  Anglo-Saxons. 
Christianity  with  its  solution  of  the  problems  connected  with  life  and  the 
hereafter  had  once  more  won  over  virile  Teutonic  tribes.  And  a  people 
that  could  glory  in  the  learning  of  Bede  and  Alcuin,  did  not  lack  poets  to 
set  forth  the  anxieties,  the  aspirations,  and  the  hopes  imparted  by  the  new 
religion.  In  the  remains  of  that  poetry  we  find  mirrored  the  consciousness 
of  sin  and  guilt,  the  firm  trust  in  the  powerful  Redeemer,  the  world- 
weariness  and  melancholy  yearning  for  a  future  life  with  its  pleasures  and 
blessings — in  short,  all  the  important  features  and  ideas  connected  with 
Christianity.  How  these  conceptions  found  expression  in  the  poetry,  and 
to  what  extent  the  terms  were  employed,  the  following  pages  will  show. 

26  Ibid.,  p.  367. 

26  Kenningar,  p.  22  f. 


.< 


N 


16  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [16 


CHAPTER  I 
DIVISION  OF  THE  HUMAN  RACE 

I.     The  Non-Christians 

1.  To  the  non-Christians  belong,  together  with  heathen  nations,  also 
the  Jews.  The  most  common  designation  of  them  is  Judeas,  the  plural 
being  in  accordance  with  the  OE.  use  of  folknames,  while  the  singular  is 
not  found.  The  term  goes  back  to  the  stem  of  Latin  Judaeus,  which  ori- 
ginally was  applied  to  a  Hebrew  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  but  later 
assumed  a  wider  meaning.1  Examples  of  the  OE.  term  are  comparatively 
frequent,  the  use  being  illustrated  by  such  passages  as  pone  Judeas  ongietan 
ne  meahtan,  Cr.  637,  Judea  cynn,  And.  560,  mid  Judeum  geomor  wurde, 
1408,  geond  Judeas,  El.  278,  which  latter  poem  mentions  them  a  number 
of  times.  The  term  Israel,  Israhel,  m.,  is  also  applied  to  them,  for  instance 
Ex.  198,  265,  etc.  Among  other  terms  and  designations  encountered  may 
be  noted  such  as  weras  Ebrea,  El.  287,  mid  Ebreum,  Wids.  83,  weras  Ebresce, 
El.  559,  we  Ebreisce  ce  leornedon,  397,  as  also  on  Ebrisc  sprccc,  724. 

2.  As  to  Jewish  sects,  they  are  not  mentioned  in  the  poetry,  though 
we  have  in  the  passage  peer  bisceopas  and  boceras  /  and  ealdormenn  ceht 
besceton  /  meedelhagende,  And.  607-9,  a  reference  to  the  scribes  in  boceras, 
a  word  of  somewhat  wide  meaning,  as  illustrated  by  Da  hcefde  Daniel  dom 
micelne,  /  bleed  in  Babilonia  mid  bocerum,  Dan.  164,  Sume  boceras  /  weorpad 
wisfceste,  Fates  71,  while  Durham  14  we  hear  of  ~5e  breotna  bocera  Beda. 
In  the  passage  quoted  from  Andreas,  the  priests  or  highpriests  and  the 
elders  are  referred  to  in  bisceopas  and  ealdormenn.  VSwita,  scribe,  learned 
in  the  Law,  we  find  El.  473,  ponne  ufiweotan  ceht  bisceton.  JElcerend,  El.  506, 
seems  to  be  a  general  term. 

3.  In  Christian  Latin  the  non-Christians  were  designated  by  the  terms 
gentes,  gentiles,  pagani,  and  ethnici.2  The  last  word  was  taken  over  by  the 
Vulgate  from  Greek  WvlkoI  {e.g.  Matt.  6,  7),  while  gentes  renders  rd  Wv-q. 
The  word  pagani  does  not  appear  in  the  Vulgate,  being  used  in  a  specific 
Christian  sense  first  in  the  4th  century,  the  original  meaning  of  paganus, 
villager,  rustic,  having  shaded  into  that  of  pagan,  heathen,  as  Christianity 
became  the  religion  of  the  towns  while  in  the  rural  districts  the  ancient 
deities  were  still  worshipped. 

lNED. 

2  Raumer,  p.  285  f.  For  this  chapter  compare  Raumer,  p.  285  ff.,  for  ON.  Kahle,  I, 
321  ff.,  II,  97-9. 


17]  DIVISION  OF  THE  HUMAN  RACE  17 

4.  In  OE.  poetry  the  term  heathen  is  generally  rendered  by  ha"den, 
m.,  the  form  in  OHG.  being  heidan,  and  in  ON.  heidinn.  In  all  the  Ger- 
manic languages  this  word  is  used  in  the  sense  of  non-Christian,  pagan, 
and  it  is  assumed  that  the  term  was  first  thus  employed  by  the  Goths  and 
thence  passed  to  the  other  Germanic  tribes.  This  view  is  supported  by  the 
occurrence  of  the  fem.  form  haipno,  Mark  7,  26,  in  Ulfilas'  translation. 
The  term  is  generally  supposed  to  go  back  to  Gothic  haipi,  heath,  the 
derived  word  being  a  loose  rendering  of  the  Latin  paganus,  though  diffi- 
culties both  chronological  and  etymological  remain.3 

5.  As  in  prose,  the  term  haden  is  comparatively  frequent  in  OE.  poetry, 
being  used  both  as  an  adjective  and  a  substantive,  as  will  appear  from  the 
examples  quoted.  The  word  is  variously  employed.  Thus  in  contrast  to 
the  Christians,  as  in  hapenra  hyht,  Beow.  179,  where  the  evidently  heathen 
Danes  seek  help  against  the  terrible  Grendel  by  sacrificing  and  praying  to 
their  idols.  The  Danes  were  sometimes  designated  simpl)'  as  heathen, 
illustrated  for  instance  by  feallan  sceolon  /  hapene  at  hilde,  Maldon  55, 
hafiene  scealcas,  181,  also  in  Denum  war  on  /  aror,  under  Nordmannum  nede 
gebceded  /  on  hapenum  hafteclammum  /  lange  prage,  Chr.  II,  10,  the  now 
Christian  Anglo-Saxons  feeling  the  heavy  hand  of  the  heathen  Norse. 
The  Huns  are  called  heathen  in  El.  126,  hadene  grungon,  /  jeollon  fridelease, 
which  is  the  regular  designation  of  the  Mermedonians  in  Andreas,  as 
1124,  1144,  etc.,  etc.  Maximianus  is  called  hapen  hildfruma,  Jul.  7; 
hadne  war  on  begen,  /  synnum  seoce,  64,  is  said  of  Helisius  and  Juliana's 
father,  the  former  also  being  thus  designated  533,  etc.  The  contrast 
between  the  Christian  and  the  heathen  is  brought  out  in  passages  such  as 
Gn.  Ex.  132,  husl  (is  fitting)  halgum  men,  hapnum  synne,  also  Sat.  268, 
where  Satan  takes  charge  of  the  unregenerated,  ah  ic  be  hondum  mot  ha- 
penne  scealc  /  gripan  to  grunde,  godes  andsacan,  as  also  Cr.  705,  pa  seo  circe 
her  J  afyllendra  eahtnysse  bad  /  under  hapenra  hyrda  gewealdum,  pertaining 
to  the  persecution  of  the  Christian  Church. 

6.  Sometimes  the  author  takes  the  Jewish  point  of  view  and  styles  the 
opponents  of  the  chosen  people  heathen.  Thus  in  passages  of  Judith,  as 
98,  179,  referring  to  Holofernes,  to  whom  the  epithet  pone  hadenan  hund 
is  applied  110.  The  Israelites  have  to  endure  hadenra  hosp  (of  the  Assyr- 
ians) in  216.  The  term  is  further  applied  to  Nebuchadnezzar  Dan.  203, 
434,  540,  etc.,  to  the  Babylonians  307,  330,  etc.,  hadne  peode  181,  while  the 
term  hadne  leode  is  used  for  them  Az.  162.  In  Gen.  2416  we  have  hadnum 
folce,  and  2483  hadne  heremacgas  applied  to  the  people  of  Sodom.  How- 
ever, the  use  of  the  term  depends  very  much  upon  the  circumstances  and 
the  particular  viewpoint  of  the  author,  for  in  El.  1075  reference  is  made  to 
the  Jews,  on  pa  ahangen  was  hadenum  folmum  /  gasta  geocend,  as  also  Sat. 

8  See  article  heathen  in  NED.    Compare  also  MacG.,  p.  14. 


18  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [18 

540,  pec  gelegdon  on  ladne  bend  /  Juzpene  mid  hondum,  who  are  thus  branded 
as  heathen. 

7.  Harden  may  be  applied  in  various  ways,  serving  to  designate  the 
hoarded  gold  in  Beow.  2216,  gefeng  /  hcednum  horde,  and  2276,  peer  he 
harden  gold  /  warad  wintrum  frod,  and  also  referring  to  Grendel  in  986, 
hcepenes  handspora,  and  852,  in  fenfreodo  feorh  alegde,  /  hcedene  sawle. 
In  Jul.  536  even  the  devil  is  called  by  that  name,  (Heo  pcet  deofol  teah) 
halig  hapenne,  an  appellation  not  as  strange  as  it  may  seem  when  we  com- 
pare such  a  passage  as  Jud.  61,  Gewat  da  se  deofulcunda  (Holof ernes),  Dan. 
750,  ge  deoflu,  (Babylonians),  And.  43,  sippan  deofles  pegnas  /  geascodon 
cedelinges  sid  (Mermedonians).  The  line  was  evidently  not  always  sharply 
drawn,  room  being  left  for  metaphorical  application. 

8.  A  number  of  compounds  occur,  of  which  hafiendom,  the  state  of 
being  a  heathen,  properly  belongs  here.  There  is  only  one  occurrence  of 
the  term  in  poetry,  Dan.  221,  and  here  it  is  contrasted  to  the  worship  of 
Jehovah,  the  state  of  belonging  to  the  chosen  people.  Hadencyninga 
occurs  Dan.  54,  applied  to  Nebuchadnezzar  and  his  vassals,  while  the 
people  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  are  called  hczdencynn  Gen.  2546.  Words 
like  hafiengield  and  hcedenweoh  as  well  as  similar  terms  will  be  treated  in 
chapter  VIII,  325. 

9.  Another  term  denoting  heathen  is  the  plural  of  plod,  f.,  people, 
which  we  find  in  the  Psalms.  We  note,  geond  peode  {in  gentibus),  LVI,  11, 
peoda  him  ondradad  pinne  egesan  (Turbabuntur  gentes),  LXIV,  8,  py  Ices 
cefre  cwefian  ofire  peoda,  hcedene  herigeas  {Ne  forte  dicant  in  gentibus), 
LXXVIII,  10,  ealle  peode  {patriae  gentium),  XCV,  7,  Beod  deofolgyld 
dysigra  peoda  gold  and  seolfur  {Simulacra  gentium  argentum  et  aurum), 
CXXXIV,  15. 

II.  The  Christians 

10.  The  other  part  of  the  human  race  is  composed  of  the  Christians, 
the  adherents  of  Christ.  In  Acts  11,  26  we  read  that  the  disciples  of  Christ 
were  first  called  xpt-vTiapoi  in  Antioch.  This  was  taken  over  by  Latin  as 
christiani.  The  OE.  term  is  cristen,  derived  from  Crist;  in  OHG.  appear 
christan,  christani,  and  christano,  while  in  ON.  we  find  kristenn,  probably 
influenced  by  the  OE.,  or  the  Middle  High  German  form  kristen.  In  the 
scanty  Gothic  literature  the  word  does  not  occur,  though  we  have  there 
the  name  Xristus. 

11.  While  in  OE.  prose  the  term  is  of  frequent  occurrence,4  both  as  an 
adjective  and  as  a  substantive,  only  nine  examples  have  been  encountered 

4  MacG.,  p.  20. 


19]  DIVISION  OF  THE  HUMAN  RACE  19 

by  me  in  the  poetry.  The  use  of  the  adjective  we  find  in  Fordon  hine  on 
cyrcean  cristenes  folces  /  hean  ahebbafi  (in  ecclesia  plebis),  Ps.  CVI,  31, 
cristenum  folce,  El.  988,  pees  latteowes  larum  hyrdon,  /  cristenum  peawum, 
1210,  cwealde  Cristne  men,  Jul.  5,  ealle,  pa  de  cunnon  cristene  peawas,  Dox. 
28,  cristene  bee,  37.  Of  the  substantive  use  only  three  examples  occur, 
Cristenra  weox  /  word  and  wisdom,  And.  1677,  peer  hie  (the  Jews)  hit  for 
worulde  wendan  meahton,  /  Cristenra  gefean,  El.  979,  and  Be  dam  frignan 
ongan  J  Cristenra  cwen  (Elene),  1068. 

12.  As  in  prose,  terms  like  geleafful,  sodfeest,  etc.,  occur  as  designations 
of  Christians,  but  these  will  be  treated  later.  No  compound  of  cristen  is 
found  in  the  poetry. 

13.  From  cristen  is  derived  the  verb  cristnian,  which  in  prose  renders 
the  Latin  catechizare,  signifying  primarily  the  prima  signatio  of  the  cate- 
chumens as  distinguished  from  baptism  proper.5  The  term  in  question 
occurs  only  once  in  the  poetry,  and  there  may  have  the  meaning  to  make 
a  Christian  or  to  baptize,  (water)  cristnad  and  cleensad  cwicra  manigo, 
Sal.  395. 

14.  All  believers  are  gathered  into  the  Church,  the  whole  body  of  the 
Christians,  for  which  OE.  prose  and  poetry  alike  use  cirice,  circe,  cyrce,  f., 
a  term  also  applied  to  the  church  building,  which  was  probably  the  original 
meaning.  The  word  also  occurs  in  other  Germanic  languages,  as  chirihha 
and  variants  in  OHG.,  kirika,  kerika,  in  OS.,  the  ON.  form  being  kirkia, 
kyrkja,  very  probably  going  back  to  OE.,  all  from  the  common  Westgerm. 
stem  *kirika. 

15.  It  is  now  generally  accepted  that  the  Westgerm.  term  goes  back  to 
the  Greek  nvpianbv  or  kvplclko.,  (belonging  to  the  Lord),  which  from  the  3rd 
century  at  least  came  to  be  used  as  a  name  for  the  Christian  house  of 
worship,  Constantine  afterwards  calling  several  churches  built  by  him 
Kvpiana.  Walafrid  Strabo  (d.  849)  first  discussed  the  question  involved,6 
and  having  given  the  Greek  derivation,  asked:  qua  occasione  ad  nos  vestigia 
haec  grecitatis  advenerint?  He  pointed  to  the  Germanic  mercenaries  in  the 
service  of  the  Roman  Empire  and  particularly  referred  to  the  Goths  in  the 
Greek  provinces.  But  in  the  extant  Gothic  literature  we  have  no  word 
derived  from  the  Greek  nvpianbv  or  Kupicuca,  the  Gothic  rendering  of  the  New 
Testament  eKK\rjala  being  aikklesjo;  however,  as  it  does  not  designate  the 
place  of  public  worship,  but  the  Christian  society  or  assembly,  a  Gothic 
representative  of  Gr.  Kvptanov  or  Kvpia.ua  may  be  assumed.  Other  avenues 
of  entrance  have  been  suggested,  as  for  instance  the  early  penetration  of 

8  Ibid.,  p.  21,  note  2. 

6  Libellus  de  exordiis  et  incrementis  quarundam  in  observationibus  ecdesiasticis  rerum; 
Kluge,  Gotische  Lehnworte,  p.  126. 


20  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [20 

Christianity  from  the  Rhone  valley  into  that  of  the  upper  Rhine,  but,  as 
the  NED.  points  out,7  "it  is  by  no  means  necessary  that  there  should 
have  been  a  single  kirika  in  Germany  itself;  from  313  onward,  Christian 
churches  with  their  sacred  vessels  and  ornaments  were  well  known  objects 
of  pillage  to  the  German  invaders  of  the  Empire:  if  the  first  with  which 
these  made  acquaintance,  wherever  situated,  were  called  nvpiaKa,  it  would 
be  quite  sufficient  to  account  for  their  familiarity  with  the  word.  The 
Angles  and  Saxons  had  seen  and  sacked  Roman  and  British  churches  in 
Gaul  and  Britain  for  centuries  before  they  had  them  of  their  own,  and,  we 
have  every  reason  to  believe,  had  known  and  spoken  of  them  as  cirican 
during  the  whole  of  that  period."  For  "long  before  they  became  Chris- 
tians, the  Germans  were  naturally  acquainted  with,  and  had  names  for, 
all  the  striking  phenomena  of  Christianity,  as  seen  in  the  Roman  provinces 
and  the  missions  outside. " 

16.  However,  while  the  term  kirika  originally  was  applied  to  the  build- 
ing, it  came  to  be  used  for  the  Latin  ecclesia  in  all  its  senses.  The  L.  term 
goes  back  to  the  Gr.  eKKX-rjala,  meaning  etymologically  the  body  of  the 
eKKkrjTOL,  a  name  given  by  Solon  to  the  public  formal  assembly  of  the 
Athenian  people,  and  later  used  for  similar  gatherings  of  other  Greek  cities. 
"By  the  LXX  it  is  used  to  translate  the  Hebrew  7i"|p,  the  'congrega- 
tion' or  assembly  of  Israel  met  before  the  Lord,  or  conceived  in  their 
relation  to  him.  In  the  N.T.  the  word  has  a  twofold  sense:  a.  (after  the 
LXX.)  the  whole  congregation  of  the  faithful,  the  Christian  Society, 
conceived  of  as  one  organism,  the  body  of  Christ;  b.  (after  classical  Gr.)  a 
particular  local  assembly  of  Christ's  enfranchised  met  for  solemn  pur- 
poses."8 Other  meanings  were  gradually  added:  the  word  came  to  be 
applied  to  the  meeting  house  as  well  as  to  the  outward  organization  of  the 
congregation  of  the  faithful,  used  in  various  shades  of  meaning.  Among 
the  Teutonic  peoples  kirika  was  employed  as  the  naturalized  equivalent 
of  L.  ecclesia. 

17.  As  stated  before,  cirice  appears  in  the  sense  of  both  the  congrega- 
tion and  the  meeting  place,  the  latter  meaning  to  be  discussed  in  chapter 
IV.  In  the  sense  of  body  of  the  faithful  we  have,  Ofer  middangeard  mona 
lixed,  I  gastlic  tungol,  swa  seo  godes  circe  /  purh  gesomninga  sofies  and 
rihtes  /  beorhte  bliced,  Cr.  699,  and  similarly,  pa  seo  circe  her  /  cefyllendra 
eahtnysse  bad,  703.  The  idea  of  the  congregation  is  the  only  one  used  in  the 
Psalms.  We  note,  on  ciricean  Crist  drihten  god  bealde  bletsige  beam  Israela 
{In  ecclesiis  benedicite  Deo  Domino,  defontibus  Israel),  LXVII,  24,pahalgan 
eac  hergea'd  on  cyricean  pine  sodf&stnesse  {in  ecclesia  sanctorum),  LXXXVIII, 

7  Our  discussion  is  mainly  based  on  the  able  article  church  in  that  work. 

8  NED. 


21]  DIVISION  OF  THE  HUMAN  RACE  21 

4.  Similarly  we  have,  wese  his  herenes  on  haligra  clanre  cyriccan  cyfied 
geneahhe!  CXLIX,  1,  where  the  Vulgate  has  laus  ejus  in  ecclesia  sanctorum. 
The  idea  of  congregation  is  furthermore  clear  in  Forfion  hine  on  cyrcean 
cristenes  folces  hean  ahebbafi  (Et  exaltent  eum  in  ecclesia  plebis),  CVI,  31. 

18.  Of  compounds  with  church  only  two  occur  in  the  poetry,  circnyt, 
the  sole  example  being  found  in  Gifts  91,  Sum  craft  hafad  cyrcnytta  fela,  / 
mag  on  lofsongum  lifes  waldend  /  hlude  hergan,  hafad  healice  /  beorhte 
stefne,  and  ciricsocn,  church-going,  found  once,  Exhortation  47,  mid  cyric- 
socnum  cealdum  wederum. 

19.  Other  designations  for  the  congregation  of  the  faithful,  such  as 
gesomnung,  geladung,  geferrdiden,  gegaderung,  and  crlstendom,  more  or  less 
frequent  in  prose,9  are  either  not  met  with  in  the  poetry,  or,  as  in  the  case 
of  gesomnung,  do  not  have  a  specific  religious  meaning. 

9  MacG.,  p.  27  ff. 


22  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [22 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  DEPARTED  MEMBERS  OF  THE  CHURCH 

I.     The  Virgin  Mary 

20.  The  Virgin  Mary  and  her  cult  occupied  a  very  prominent  place 
in  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church,  and  the  references  to  her  in  both  prose1  and 
poetry2  are  numerous.  The  simplest  designation  of  her  is  Virgin,  the  idea 
being  expressed  by  different  words;  other  appellations  showing  the  rank 
and  qualities  attributed  to  her  are  also  found.  Very  frequently  the  term 
famne,  virgin,  is  met  with,  so  for  instance  Cr.  35,  123,  175,  195,  418,  720, 
Ap.  29,  Creed  19,  etc.  Among  other  designations  we  note  mag,  magd, 
me  owl  e,  weolme,  frowe,  dritt,  all  of  which  are  poetic.  We  find  that  the 
highest  regard  is  paid  to  her,  and  the  invocation  of  her  aid,  which  before 
the  Council  of  Ephesus  (431)  had  been  resorted  to  only  hesitatingly  and 
occasionally,3  is  very  common  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church.  We  note, 
fultumes  bidde  friclo  uirginem  almam,  Invocation  21,  and  Gepinga  us  nit 
pristum  wordum,  /  pat  he  us  ne  late  leng  owihte  /  in  pisse  dea'Sdene  gedwolan 
hyran,  /  ac  pat  he  usic  geferge  in  fader  rice,  /  par  we  sorglease  sippan  motan  / 
wunigan  in  wuldre  mid  weoroda  god!  Cr.  342-7.  Thus  the  mother  of 
Christ  was  supposed  to  have  great  influence  upon  her  son,  and  her  inter- 
cession was  thought  to  be  especially  effective.  His  high  regard  for  her  is 
brought  out  Rood  B,  92-4,  his  modor  eac  Marian  sylfe  /  almihtig  god  for 
ealle  menn  /  geweorZode  ofer  eall  wifa  cynn. 

21.  Absolute  sinlessness  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  originally  quite  unknown 
to  Catholicism,  and  Augustine's  repeated  assertion  that  she  was  born  in 
original  sin  {De  ger.  ad.  lit.  V,  18)  notwithstanding,4  is  in  Anglo-Saxon  times 
often  asserted,  though  one  as  late  as  Anselm  {Cur  Deus  Homo,  II,  16)  says 
that  the  Virgin  herself  was  conceived  in  iniquity,  and  born  with  original 
sin.  Perpetual  virginity,  not  taught  during  the  first  three  centuries,  and 
first  appearing  in  a  book  placed  upon  the  papal  index  librorum  prohibitorum 
as  heretical,  is  also  a  number  of  times  alluded  to  and  openly  claimed  in 
OE.  poetry.  The  following  examples  will  illustrate,  ides  unmane,  Creed 
14,  magd  manes  leas,  Cr.  36,  and  no  gebrosnad  iveard  /  magdhad  se  mida, 
85-6,  hu  ic  famnanhad,  /  mund  minne  geheold  and  eac  modor  gewearZ  / 
mare  meoludes  suna,  92-4,  saga  ecne pone  /  marum  mcotodes  sunu,  patic  his 

1  Compare  MacG.,  p.  33  ff. 

2  For  OHG.  see  Raumer,  p.  292  f.,  for  ON.  Kahle,  I.  325.  II,  99  ff. 

3  Encyclopaedia  Britannica. 

4  Ibid 


23]  DEPARTED  MEMBERS  OF  THE  CHURCH  23 

modor  geweard,  /  fcemne  ford  se  peak,  209-11,  womma  lease,  188,  pest  pu 
pinne  mesgdhad  meotude  brohtes,  /  sealdes  butan  synnum,  289-90,  and  pe, 
Maria,  ford  /  efne  unwemme  a  gehealdan,  299-300,  unmcsle  cslces  pinges, 
333,  mesged  unmcsle,  111,  peak  wess  hyre  mesgdenhad  /  esghwees  onwalg, 
1420-1,  etc. 

22.  A  few  times  the  Virgin  Mary  is  spoken  of  as  the  mother  of  Christ. 
We  note,  Marie,  modur  Cristes,  Charm  VIII,  17,  cyninges  modor,  Men.  21, 
drihtnes  modor,  169. 

23.  Not  infrequently  figures  are  used  to  designate  the  Holy  Virgin. 
Eordfate  halgan  gesste,  Maxims  18,  only  once,  the  word  being  poetic,  nu  ic 
his  (Christ's)  tempel  earn  (gefremed),  Cr.  206,  pesr  gestapelad  wees  /  cspelic 
ingong,  307-8,  duru  ormeste,  309,  swa  fcsstlice  forescyttelsas,  312,  dess  ceaster- 
hlides  clustor,  314,  das  gyldnan  gatu,  318,  pa  fesstan  locu,  321,  pu  eart  pest 
wealldor,  328.  In  280-1  we  ftndpcstpu  bryd  sie  /  pess  selestan  swegles  bryttan, 
and  292  bryd  beaga  hroden. 

24.  A  few  attributes  of  the  Virgin  may  be  noted  here.  Sancta  Maria, 
Cr.  88,  $a  sodan  sancta5  Marian,  Charm  I,  29,  sanctan6  Marian,  Creed  13, 
seo  clesneste  cwen  ofer  eorpan,  Cr.  276,  meowle  seo  clesne,  Doom  293,  clesne 
and  gecorene,  Cr.  331,  Ealapu  mesre,  275,  mesrre  meowlan,  446.  Numerous 
others  occur,  as  also  some  designations  that  show  the  greatest  respect  and 
veneration.  We  quote,  ealra  femnena  wyn,  Prayer  III,  26,  wifa  wynn,  Cr. 
71,  wifa  wuldor,  Men.  149,  pur h  pa  espelan  cwenn,  Cr.  1199,  Cwena  selost, 
Men.  168,  sio  eadge  mesg,  Cr.  87,  mesdena  selast,  Doom  294,  mesged  mod- 
hwatu,  Maxims  16,  mesgda  weolman,  Cr.  445,  fesgerust  mesgda,  Men.  148, 
gebletsodost  ealra,  Doom  296,  fcemne  freolicast,  Cr.  72,  csnlicu  godes  drut, 
Doom  291,  seo  fr owe,  292.  We  add  here  the  passage  from  Doom,  291-4,  in 
order  to  show  the  rendering  of  the  Latin  line:  csnlicu  godes  drut,  /  seo 
frowe,  pe  us  frean  acende,  /  metod  on  moldan,  meowle  seo  clesne:  / pest  is 
.Maria.,  mesdena  selast  {alma  Dei  Genitrix,  pia  virgo  Maria,  148).  The 
Virgin  is  further  called  hlesfdige  halgum  meahtum  /  wuldorweorudes  and 
worldcundra  /  hada  under  heofonum  and  helwaral  Cr.  284-6.  This  list, 
which  could  be  extended,7  contains  a  large  number  of  poetical  terms,  some 
of  them  occurring  only  once,  as  seen  from  the  list  of  poetical  words  at 
the  end. 

II.    Patriarchs 

25.  The  Latin  patriarcha  as  a  designation  of  the  venerable  Old  Testa- 
ment characters  is  rendered  in  OE.  poetry  by  heahfesder,  OHG.  hohfater.* 

6  MS.  Tea  marian. 
•MS.  Sea. 

7  Compare  kennings  of  Virgin  Mary  in  Jansen,  Synonymik,  p.  18  f. 

8  For  ON.  see  Kahle,  I,  326.    For  OE.  prose  MacG.,  pp.  38-9  may  be  compared. 


24  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [24 

Only  a  few  examples  occur,  which  we  give  in  full.  The  disciples  of  Andrew 
report  about  their  vision  during  the  journey  to  Mermedonia,  heahfcederas 
halige  oncneoivon  /  and  martyr  a  mcegen  unlytel,  And.  875.  Further  examples 
are,  par  martiras  meotode  cwema'8  /  and  herigafi  hehfceder  halgum  stefnum  / 
cyning  in  cestre,  Sat.  656,  betwyx  heahfcederas  and  halige  witegan  (vatidicis 
junctos  patriarchis  atque  prophetis,  144),  Doom  284,  heahfcedra  fela  swylce 
eac  hcelepa  gemot,  Har.  47,  heahfcedera  sum  (Abraham),  Ex.  357,  {peer) 
heahfcedera  lira  beheled  wceron,  And.  791,  while  heahfcedra  nan,  Jul.  514,  is 
able  to  gain  power  over  the  devil,  the  accomplishment  of  the  saintly 
Juliana  being  magnified  by  the  spirit  of  darkness.  As  will  be  gathered 
from  these  examples,  the  patriarchs  are  generally  mentioned  with  the 
prophets,  the  connection  between  them  being  close.  In  And.  801  Abraham, 
Isaac,  and  Jacob  are  even  spoken  of  as  15a  witigan  pry. 

26.  Once  heahfeeder  is  applied  to  God  the  Father,  namely  in  Rood  B, 
134,  lifiap  nu  on  heofenum  mid  heahfeeder e,  a  use  also  appearing  in  prose 
and  being  equivalent  to  the  Latin  pater  excelsus. 

III.     Prophets 

27.  The  term  for  prophet  in  OE.  poetry9  is  witega,  wltga,  from  the 
Germanic  stem  *witags,  wise  one;  OHG.  has  wizago.10  In  accordance 
with  this  fundamental  meaning  the  word  is  probably  used  in  a  purely 
secular  sense  Dan.  41,  to  pees  witgan  for  on,  /  Caldea  cyn  to  ceastre  ford. 
In  Ph.  30,  swa  us  gefreogum  gleawe  /  witgan  purh  wisdom  on  gewritum 
cypdb*,  the  idea  of  wise  is  also  very  prominent.  Judas  or  Cyriacus  is  called 
witgan  sunu  El.  592,  and  in  the  same  poem,  where  the  nails  of  the  cross 
are  mentioned,  we  hear  Be  dam  se  witga  sang,  /  snottor  searupancum,  1188. 

28.  In  the  sense  of  prophet  the  term  witega  occurs  not  infrequently, 
especially  in  Elene,  Christ,  and  other  poems.  A  few  examples  will  suffice 
here,  purg  witgena  wordgeryno,  El.  289,  ge  witgena  /  tare  onfengon,  334,  and 
hu  on  worulde  oer  witgan  sungon,  /  gasthalige  guman  be  godes  beame,  561. 
In  El.  35.1  Isaiah  is  called  witga,  and  in  Cr.  306  wisfcest  witga.  Witgan 
wisfcBste  wordum  scegdon,  /  cyddon  Cristes  gebyrd,  we  hear  Cr.  64-5,  while 
1193-4  they  are  spoken  of  as  witgan  drihtnes  /  halge  higegleawe.  Halige 
witigan  raise  Christ  on  his  throne,  Sat.  460.  Of  further  occurrences  of  the 
term  we  note  witgan  larum,  Ex.  390,  od  peet  witga  cwom,  /  Daniel  to  dome, 
Dan.  149,  ne  on  mine  witigan  wergde  settan  (in  prophetis  meis  nolite  malig- 
nari),  Ps.  CIV,  13. 

29.  However,  the  term  witga  is  also  a  designation  for  heathen  prophets 
or  magi.     Thus  in  Dan.  135,  andswarode  /  wulfheort  cyning  (Nebuchad- 

9  For  the  prose  compare  MacG.,  pp.  36-8. 

10  Compare  for  OHG.  Raumer,  p.  322  f.,  ON.  Kahle,  I,  325-6. 


25]  DEPARTED  MEMBERS  OF  THE  CHURCH  25 

nezzar)  witgum  sinum,  and  perhaps  also  in  647,  Ne  lengde  pa  leoda  aldor  / 
witegena  wordcwide. 

30.  In  the  original  sense  of  propheta  as  proclaimer,  utterer,  we  have 
the  poetic  boda  in  Moods  4,  wordhord  onwreah  witgan  larum  /  beom  boca 
gleaw,  bodan  cercwide.  More  often  the  compound  spel(l)boda  is  used, 
originally  meaning  messenger,  proclaimer  of  a  message.  The  secular  use 
of  the  term  is  illustrated  Ps.  CV,  10,  where  it  is  said  about  the  Egyptian 
disaster  in  the  Red  Sea,  pcet  pcera  cefre  ne  com  an  spellboda.  In  a  religious 
sense  the  word  is  applied  to  Daniel,  godes  spelboda,  Dan.  533  and  743.  In 
the  Phenix,  where  Job  appears  in  the  role  of  prophet,  godes  spelboda,  line 
571,  serves  as  a  designation  for  him,  the  reader  having  been  exhorted  548-9, 
gehyrad  witedom  /  Jobes  gieddingal  The  same  term  is  also  applied  to  the 
apostles  Gu.  11,  swa  pcet  geara  iu  godes  spelbodan  /  wordum  scegdon  and 
purh  witedom  /  eal  anemdon,  swa  hit  nu  gouged. 

31.  Further  uses  of  the  word  are  found  in  Daniel,  where  in  lines  230 
and  465  the  three  youths  in  the  fiery  furnace  are  called  godes  spelbodan. 
Cr.  336,  in  referring  to  the  Annunciation,  speaks  of  godes  spelboda  Gabriel; 
Gen.  2494  the  angels  bringing  Lot  the  fateful  news  of  Sodom  and  Gomor- 
rah's disaster  are  called  (Jrome)  godes  spellbodan,  and  Cr.  449  those  announc- 
ing Christ's  birth  to  the  shepherds  bodan.  As  will  be  seen  from  the  passages, 
the  use  of  the  term  is  often,  though  not  always,  explained  by  the  function 
assumed  in  a  particular  case.  Wodbora,  otherwise  orator,  speaker,  is 
applied  to  Isaiah  Cr.  302. 

32.  Prophesy,  prophesying,  is  expressed  by  witedom,  witigdom,  a  term 
occurring  five  times  in  the  poetry.  Ph.  548,  gehyrad  witedom  /  Jobes 
gieddinga,  and  Gu.  12,  purh  witedom  /  eal  anemdon,  have  already  been 
quoted  in  connection  with  wltega.  The  other  examples  are,  Wees  se  wite- 
dom I  purh  fyrnwitan  beforan  sungen,  /  eall  cefter  orde,  swa  hit  eft  gelamp  / 
dinga  gehwylces,  El.  1152,  sceolde  witedom  /  in  him  sylfum  beon  sode  gefylled, 
Cr.  212,  and  Ne  meahte  pa  seo  moznigeo  on  pam  me'delstede  /  purh  witigdom 
wihte  apencean,  Dan.  146.  In  the  sense  of  to  prophesy  the  verb  wltgian 
occurs  only  once,  namely  Dan.  546,  and  (Daniel)  him  witgode  wyrda 
gepingu.  Once  we  find  cercwide,  m.,  Moods  4,  wordhord  onwreah  witgan 
larum  /  beom  boca  gleaw,  bodan  cercwide,  which  may  have  the  sense  of 
prophesy. 

33.  The  magi  of  the  Chaldeans,  otherwise  also  designated  simply 
prophets,  are  called  deofulwitgan  Dan.  128,  the  term  being  found  only  once 
in  OE.  literature. 

IV.    Apostles 

34.  The  first  adherents  of  Christ  are  called  in  the  New  Testament 
nadrjraL  in  contradistinction  to  the  master  as  5t5dcr/caXos,  and  in  reference 


26  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [26 

to  their  being  sent  to  preach,  drocrroXot.  The  Vulgate  renders  /j.adr)Tal 
by  discipuli,  and  takes  over  the  term  a-wbcFToKoi  as  apostoli.  Apostol  as 
the  designation  of  disciples  is  found  only  twice  in  OE.  poetry,11  namely 
Men.  122,  where  Peter  and  Paul  are  spoken  of  as  pa  apostolas,  /  peoden 
holde  prowedon  on  Rome,  and  Sat.  571,  pat  he  pas  ymb  ane  niht  twelf  aposto- 
las I  mid  his  gastes  gife,  gingran  geswidde.  A  direct  translation  of  the  term 
apostolus,  which  in  OHG.  besides  the  rare  postul  is  generally  rendered  by 
boto,12  does  not  occur  in  OE.  poetry,  though  once  the  compound  spelboda  is 
found,  Gu.  11,  swa  pest  geara  iu  godes  spelbodan  /  wordum  sagdon.  But 
references  to  the  Twelve  are  by  no  means  absent.  We  note,  twelfe  under 
tunglum  tireadige  haled,  And.  2,  pa  du  us  twelfe  trymman  angunne,  1419, 
Twelfe  wceron  /  dadum  domfaste,  dryhtne  gecorene,  Ap.  4-5,  Dys  da  adelingas 
ende  gesealdon,  /  XII.  tilmodige,  86,  and  eom  ic  para  twelf  a  sum,  pe  he 
getreoweste  I  under  monnes  hiw  mode  gelufade,  Gu.  681. 

35.  Only  one  compound  of  apostol  appears,  the  poetic  apostolhad, 
denoting  the  rank  or  position  of  an  apostle,  occurring  only  twice,  (Andrew) 
gesette  /  wisfcestne  wer.  .  .  /  in  pare  beorhtan  byrig  bisceop  pam  leodum  / 
and  gehalgode  fore  pam  heremagene  /  purh  apostolhad,  Platan  nemned, 
And.  1651,  and  (At  Rome  died)  Petrus  and  Paulus:  is  se  apostolhad  / 
wide  geweordod  ofer  werpeoda,  Ap.  14. 

36.  However,  the  disciples  and  followers  of  Christ  appear  frequently 
in  OE.  poetry,  though  not  often  under  the  name  of  apostles.  Thus  we  find 
arendraca  in  Doom  286,  par  pa  arendracan  synd  almihtiges  godes  (inter 
apostolicas  .  .  .  arces,  145),  and  folgere,  once,  Creed  35,  and  he  .XL. 
daga  folgeras  sine  /  runum  arette.  The  term  geongra,  comparative  of 
geong,  in  the  sense  of  servant  or  disciple,  occurs  not  infrequently.  The 
simple  meaning  servants  is  applied  to  Adam  and  Eve  in  Gen.  450,  where 
they  are  called  drihtnes  geongran,  and  in  458,  515;  in  other  places  the  term 
is  similarly  used.  Referring  to  the  disciples  of  Christ,  we  find  for  instance 
gingran  sinum,  Sat.  522,  gingran,  526,  530,  531,  and  572  in  the  passage 
quoted  about  the  twelve  apostles.  In  And.  1330,  fiat  hie  <5e  hnagen  / 
gingran  at  gude,  reference  is  made  to  Andrew,  though  the  term  even  in  its 
religious  or  Christian  meaning  is  by  no  means  limited  to  the  Twelve, 
for  gingran  sine,  And.  427,  similarly  847  and  894,  is  applied  to  the  followers 
of  Andrew. 

37.  Other  appellations  are  also  used  for  the  followers  of  Christ  in 
accordance  with  the  view  taken  in  a  particular  case.  While  thus  in  swa 
dyde  lareow  pin:  /  cyneprym  ahof,  pam  was  Crist  nama,  And.  1321-2, 
Xdreow  as  Andrew's  teacher  would  be  the  5t5do-/caXos  ko.t  e&xriv,  Andrew  is 

u  For  the  prose  compare  MacG.,  p.  39  ff. 

n  See  Raumer,  pp.  364-6.  A  discussion  of  the  terms  used  in  ON.  will  be  found  in  Kahle, 
I,  p.  327,  and  II,  106-7. 


27]  DEPARTED  MEMBERS  OF  THE  CHURCH  27 

called  leofne  lareow  1707,  and  James  frod  and  fastrad  folca  lareow  Men.  135. 
Not  seldom  Christ  is  represented  as  a  king  and  his  followers  as  his  pegnas, 
retainers.  This  is  an  especially  favored  term,  conspicuously  in  Andreas, 
but  also  in  other  poems.  We  note  as  designation  of  the  Twelve,  peodnes 
pegnas,  And.  3;  his  magupegne,  94,  applied  to  Matthew;  his  magopegne, 
1207,  referring  to  Andrew,  384,  Gif  3u  pegn  sie  prymsittendes  /  wuldor- 
cyninges,  417,  pegen  gcpungen  prymsittendes,  528,  also  mentioning  him  as 
retainer.  But  the  term  is  also  employed  for  Andrew  and  his  followers, 
323,  344,  while  pegnas  wlitige,  363,  is  used  of  Andrew's  followers.  The 
disciples  at  Christ's  ascension  are  called  pegnas  gecorene  Cr.  497,  and  541 
we  find,  Bidon  ealle  peer  /  pegnas  prymfulle  peodnes  gehata  /  in  pare  torhtan 
byrig  (Jerusalem) .  Simon  in  Samaria  accuses  pa  gecorenan  Cristes  pegnas 
opposing  him  as  magicians,  Jul.  299,  and  Nero  commands  that  Cristes 
pegnas  /  Petrus  and  Paulus  be  killed,  303.  Thus  Gu.  665  Bartholomew  is 
designated  dyre  dryhtnes  pegn,  calling  himself  meotudes  pegn  680. 

38.  Other  terms  might  be  added  in  order  to  show  the  attitude  of  mind 
with  which  the  authors  of  different  poems  view  the  followers  of  the  man 
of  meekness  and  peace.  We  note  only  oretlmacgas,  And.  664,  applied  to 
the  Twelve,  oretta  used  of  Andrew  in ' eadig  oreta,  463,  anrad  oretta,  983, 
etc.,  halig  cempa,  461,  Cristes  cempa,  991.  Similar  terms  are  also  applied 
to  Saint  Guthlac,  who  as  a  true  warrior  defends  himself  against  the  hosts 
of  evil  spirits. 

39.  In  relation  to  each  other  the  apostles  are  conceived  as  brothers. 
Thus  And.  183  Andrew  is  told  about  Matthew  as  pinne  sigebro'dor,  and 
again  940,  par  pin  brodor  is.  We  have  further,  Syb  wees  gemcene  /  bam  pam 
gebrodrum,  And.  1014,  wuldres  pegnas,  /  begen  pa  gebro'dor,  1027,  and  pa 
gebrodru,  Petrus  and  Paulus,  Charm  VIII,  18.  In  Gu.  686  Bartholomew, 
coming  to  the  help  of  the  saint,  says,  Is  pat  min  bropor,  where  the  term  has 
a  more  general  significance. 

V.     Martyrs 

40.  The  Latin  martyr  (from  late  Greek  naprvp)  as  the  designation  for 
one  who  suffers  persecution  on  account  of  his  belief,  is  expressed  in  OE. 
literature  by  two  terms,  the  learned  martyre,  marytr,  martir,  and  the  native 
prowere,  from  prowian,  to  suffer13.  Only  four  times  the  learned  term  is 
employed.  Once  it  refers  to  Saint  Guthlac,  who  valiantly  puts  up  a  good 
and  successful  battle  against  the  evil  spirits,  was  se  martyre  from  mon- 
cynnes  I  synnum  asundrad,  Gu.  485.  A  reference  to  departed  martyrs  we 
find  Sat.  655,  par  martiras  meotode  cwemad  /  and  herigad  hehfader  halgum 
stefnum  /  cyning  in  cestre.    The  passage  And.  876  is  similar,  We  par  heah- 

13  For  the  prose  compare  MacG.,  p.  52  ff.  The  OHG.  terms  are  discussed  by  Raumer, 
pp.  293-4,  the  ON.  by  Kahle,  I,  327-8,  II,  107-8. 


28  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [28 

faderas  halige  oncneowon  /  and  martyr  a  mcegen  unlytel.  A  memorial  in 
honor  of  all  the  martyrs  was  celebrated  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church,  to 
which  reference  is  made  in  the  enumeration  of  the  halige  dagas,  Men.  69, 
Scutari  we  hwadere  gyt  /  martira  gemynd  ma  areccan.u 

41.  The  native  term  prowere  is  used  only  twice  in  poetry,  both  occur- 
rences being  in  Guthlac.  In  line  132,  Oft  purh  reorde  ahead,  /  pam  pe 
prowera  peawas  lufedon,  /  godes  arendu,  it  is  rather  general,  while  the  pas- 
sage Frome  wurdun  monge  /  godes  prowera,  153,  refers  to  those  still  under- 
going suffering. 

42.  The  Latin  martyrium,  the  witness  or  death  of  a  martyr,  is  expressed 
by  martyrdom,  martyrhad,  and  prowung,  the  latter  term  being  employed 
for  the  suffering  of  holy  men  as  well  as  for  the  passio  of  Christ.  In  Men. 
126  martyrdom  is  used  of  the  supposed  joint  suffering  of  Peter  and  Paul, 
pa  apostolas,  /  peoden  holde  prowedon  on  Rome  /  ofer  midne  sumor  miccle 
gewisse  /  furfi or  fif  nihtum  folcbealo  prealic,  /  mceme  martyrdom,  while  the 
death  of  Laurentius  is  mentioned  145,  panne  ford  gewat  /  ymb  preo  niht 
pees  peodne  getrywe  /  purh  martyrdom,  mare  diacon.  In  a  somewhat  peculiar 
sense  the  term  is  employed  Prayer  IV,  80,  Gode  ic  hcebbe  /  abolgen,  brego 
moncynnes :  forpon  ic  pus  bittre  wear's  /  gewitnad  fore  pisse  worulde,  swa  min 
giewyrhto  wceron  /  micle  fore  monnum,  pcet  ic  martirdom  /  deopne  adreoge. 
As  has  been  pointed  out  by  Wuelker,15  the  term  martirdom  would  suggest 
that  the  exiled  author  considers  himself  innocent  as  to  the  particular  cause 
of  the  punishment,  though  realizing  the  unjustly  inflicted  punishment  as  a 
just  retribution  overwhelming  him  on  account  of  other  sins.  Martyrhad 
occurs  once  in  Guthlac,  where  it  is  applied  to  the  state  of  suffering  to  which 
the  numerous  devils  subject  the  saint,  (God  would)  after  prowinga  (him) 
pone  gegyldan,  /pat  he  martyrhad  mode  gelufade,  443. 

43.  prowung  in  a  somewhat  general  sense  as  referring  to  a  saint  is 
used  in  the  passage  just  quoted,  after  prowinga,  Gu.  442,  similarly  356, 
Nis  pisses  beorges  setl  /  meodumre  ne  mara,  ponne  hit  men  duge,  /  se  pe  in 
prowingum  peodnes  willan  /  daghwam  dreogefi,  and  also  line  750,  poncade 
peodne,  pas  pe  he  in  prowingum  /  bidan  moste.  The  references  to  the 
passio  of  Christ  will  be  quoted  in  chapter  VII,  Life  of  Christ,  248. 

VI.     Saints 

44.  In  order  to  express  Latin  sanctus,  two  different  terms  are  employed 
in  OE.  poetry,16  one  native,  while  the  other  has  been  taken  over  from  the 

14  Further  remarks  will  be  found  in  chapter  V,  Festivals  and  Holy  Seasons. 
16  Grundriss,  p.  377. 

16  In  regard  to  prose  see  MacG.,  p.  60  ff.  For  OHG.  compare  Raumer,  294,  for  ON. 
Kahle,  I,  328-9,  II,  108  ff . 


29]  DEPARTED  MEMBERS  OF  THE  CHURCH  29 

Latin.  Sometimes  the  borrowed  word  even  retains  its  Latin  ending,  as 
shown  in  sanctus  Paulus,  El.  504  and  Panther  69.  The  term  is  applied 
several  times  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  as  will  be  seen  under  subdivision  I, 
24.  Like  the  adjective,  the  noun  sanct,  m.,  is  also  rare.  We  note,  to 
poem  cvpelan  /  hnigan  him  sanctas,11  Sat.  240,  and  sanctas  singa'8,  355.  In 
Men.  200  reference  is  made  to  the  festival  of  All  Saints,18  we  healdad  / 
Sanct  a  symbel,  para  pe  si~5  ofide  cer  /  worhtan  in  wornlde  will  an  drihtnes. 

45.  However,  the  usual  expression  corresponding  to  Latin  sanctus  is 
halig,  OHG.  heilig,  OS.  helig,  ON.  heilagr,  from  Teut.  *hailag-oz,  probably 
meaning  inviolate,  inviolable.19  The  term,  used  both  as  an  adjective  and 
as  a  noun,  is  of  great  frequency  in  the  poetry,  so  that  a  few  examples  will 
suffice  for  illustration.  {Gefetigan)  haligre  (St.  Juliana)  fader,  Jul.  61, 
his  halige,  pe  on  heofonum  synt,  Charm  I,  58,  halge  cwelmdon,  Jul.  15, 
haligra  gemynd,  Instructions  63,  haligra  Hid,  Men.  229,  para  haligra  on 
heofonan  rice  {sanctorum,  11),  Doom  22,  with  which  may  be  compared 
ic  gemcenscipe  mcvrne  getreowe  /  pinra  haligra  her  on  life,  Creed  52-3,  a 
rendering  of  the  Latin  Sanctorum  communionem;  eallum  dam  halgum, 
Rood  B,  154.  Halig  peer  inne  /  wcerfcest  wunade,  Jul.  237,  ahon  haligne 
on  heanne  beam  (referring  to  Andrew),  309,  ponne  halige  men  /  lifiendum 
gode  lofsang  dod,20  Soul  68. 

46.  The  noun  formed  from  halig  is  halignes,  which  is  found  only  a  few 
times  in  the  Psalms,  where  it  is  used  in  the  sense  of  holiness  as  an  attribute 
of  God,  and  as  a  term  for  sanctuary.21 

47.  The  verb  is  {ge)halgian,  employed  in  a  number  of  different  ways. 
Thus  it  is  said  of  God,  "Su  sunnandceg  sylf  halgodest,  Dox.  25,  of  Abraham 
in  regard  to  the  circumcision,  pu  scealt  halgian  hired  pinne,  Gen.  2310, 
while  L.  Prayer  I,  2,  we  read,  Sy  pinum  weorcan  halgad  /  noma  nippa 
bearnum.  Gehalgian,  to  consecrate,  we  find  And.  586,  he  gehalgode  .  .  .  / 
win  of  wcetere,  which  is  used  in  the  sense  of  consecration  or  ordination  of  a 
bishop  1650,  applied  to  the  dedication  of  a  church  building,  cirice  gehalgod, 
1646,  and  employed  in  a  metaphorical  sense  Cr.  1482,  pat  selegescot,  pat 
ic  me  swees  on  pe  /  gehalgode  hits  to  wynne.  Twice  the  term  refers  to  the 
consecration  of  a  king,  {Edgar  wees)  to  hinge  gehalgod,  Chr.  Ill,  A,  2,  and 
woes  peoden  gehalgod,  20.     In  the  sense  of  to  keep  holy  gehalgian  is  met  with 

"It  should  be  noted  that  the  MSS.  generally  employ  abbreviations,  so  El.  504  for 
sanctus  JTs;  in  our  passage  Sat.  240,  seas,  etc. 

18  A  discussion  of  it  will  be  found  in  chapter  V,  99. 

19  For  the  development  of  the  meaning  holy  see  NED.,  also  MacG.,  p.  60. 

20  The  term  halig  is  employed  in  many  different  ways,  from  halig  feok  in  Gen.  201  to  an 
attribute  of  the  Deity. 

21  Quoted  in  chapters  IV  and  VII. 


30  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [30 

in  Siva  is  gehalgod  pin  heah  nama,  L.  Prayer  III,  18,  similarly  II,  3-4,  the 
passage  in  each  case  rendering  Sanctificetur  nomen  tuum.  The  participle 
used  as  an  epithet  of  Christ  occurs  Cr.  435,  se  gehalgoda  hcelend. 


31]  ECCLESIASTICAL  OFFICES  31 


CHAPTER  III 
ECCLESIASTICAL  OFFICES 

48.  From  the  second  century  on  Christianity  conceived  society  as 
divided  into  two  classes,1  the  whole  congregation  of  the  faithful  being 
designated  as  the  icXrjpos,  originally  meaning  inheritance,  lot.2  The  Chris- 
tians were  thus  the  KXrjpos  6eov,  an  expression  which  goes  back  to  the 

Hebrew  Hi  IT  H/PO  (hereditas  Dei),  used  in  the  Old  Testament 
of  the  Children  of  Israel.  Soon,  however,  the  term  was  transferred  to  the 
priestly  class,  which  had  gradually  developed  and  which  might  be  said 
to  have  chosen  Christ  as  its  particular  portion.  From  nXrjpos  the  adjective 
kKtjplkos,  clerical,  pertaining  to  the  priestly  class,  was  derived,  and  both 
words  were  taken  over  by  Christian  Latin  as  clerus  and  clericus.  In  dis- 
tinction to  KXfjpos,  the  others  were  called  Xai'/coi,  those  belonging  to  the 
people,  the  Xaos,  a  word  also  taken  over  by  the  Latin  as  laid. 

49.  In  OE.  poetry  this  general  division  into  two  classes,  laymen  and 
clergy,  is  not  formally  indicated.  In  the  prose  laymen  were  termed 
lawede  men,  fleet  I  (Swede  folc,  while  the  favorite  name  for  the  clergy  was 
fleet  gdstl ice  folc,  godes  fleowas.3  In  the  poetry  a  name  for  the  laymen  does 
not  appear.  The  passage  feala  wearfl  todrcefed  /  gleawra  godes  peowa,  Chr. 
Ill,  B,  18-19,  does  not  absolutely  demand  the  interpretation  of  godes peowa 
as  clergymen,  though  a  parallel  passage,  peer  wees  preosta  heap,  /  mycel 
muneca  preat  mine  gefrcege  /  gleawra  gegaderod,  Chr.  Ill,  A,  8-10,  would 
suggest  such  an  interpretation.  The  other  examples  of  the  term  do  not 
furnish  conclusive  evidence. 

50.  The  clergy  was  composed  of  two  originally  distinct  classes,  the 
clergy  proper,  and  the  monastic  clergy.  It  may  be  noted  here  that  the 
monks  at  first  were  generally  laymen,  the  insistence  upon  ordination  being 
a  very  late  development.     The  clergy  proper  will  be  taken  up  first. 

51 .  The  whole  priesthood  of  the  Roman  Church  was  divided  into  two 
groups,  the  Ordines  majores,  to  which  belonged  four  classes,  episcopus, 
sacerdos,  diaconus,  subdiaconus ,  and  the  Ordines  minores,  which  embraced 
the  acoluthus,  exorcista,  lector,  and  ostiarius.  But  according  to  /Elfric, 
(Canons,  Thorpe,  p.  443  ff.4),  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church  recognized  only 

1  Raumer,  p.  295  f.;  for  the  whole  chapter  compare  295  ff.,  for  ON.  Kahle,  I,  329  ff.,  II, 
116  ff. 

2  So  in  the  only  example  of  the  learned  word  in  OE.  poetry,  Gif  ge  slapaZ  samod  on  clero, 
Ps.  LXVII,  13. 

*  MacG.,  pp.  67-9. 

*  Ibid.,  p.  83. 


32  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [32 

seven  orders,  and  conceived  bishops  and  masspriests  as  belonging  to  one 
order,  so  that  our  first  and  second  class  of  the  Ordines  majores  would 
coalesce  into  one.  To  this  order  naturally  belonged  also  the  bishop  of 
Rome,  the  pope,  as  well  as  archbishops,  metropolitans,  and  patriarchs. 

52.  The  pope  may  be  considered  first.  The  OE.  designation  is  papa, 
derived  from  Eccl.  Latin  papa,  going  back  to  late  Gr.  7rd7ras,  7ra7ras,  a  late 
variant  of  Tairiras,  father.5  OHG.  has  babes,  babist,  ON.  pdpe,  pdfe.  The 
Greek  term  was  applied  to  bishops,  patriarchs,  and  popes,  being  a  recog- 
nized title  of  the  bishop  of  Alexandria  before  250.  The  Latin  papa  was 
employed  as  a  term  of  respect  for  high  ecclesiastics,  especially  bishops, 
and  throughout  the  5th  century  all  Christian  bishops  were  still  called  by 
that  name.6  As  late  as  640  St.  Gall  applies  it  to  Desiderius,  bishop  of 
Cahors.  However,  beginning  with  Leo  the  Great  (440-461),  the  term 
became  gradually  limited  in  the  Western  Church  to  the  bishop  of  Rome, 
though  it  was  not  until  1073  that  Gregory  VII  claimed  the  title  exclusively 
for  the  Roman  pontiff. 

53.  As  papa  is  a  late  Latin  borrowing,  it  is  used  in  OE.  for  the  bishop 
of  Rome.  In  the  poetry  it  occurs  but  once,  Met.  I,  42,  was  ptzm  cvpelinge 
(Theoderic)  Arrianes  /  gedwola  leofre ponne  drihtnes  a,  /  het  Johannes  godne 
papan  /  heafde  beheawan.  Where  in  Elene  there  is  an  opportunity  to  men- 
tion the  pope,  he  is  simply  called  a  bishop,  Sidfian  Elene  heht  Eusebium  / 
on  reedgepeaht,  Rome  bisceop  /  gefetian  on  fultum,  1051,  a  characteristic 
feature,  since  the  Anglo-Saxons  for  a  long  time  regarded  the  pope  simply 
as  a  highly  revered  bishop.7 

54.  The  QE.  term  for  bishop  is  biscop,  bisceop,  m.,  OHG.  biscof,  piscof, 
ON.  biscup.  The  word  is  assumed  to  be  derived  from  a  Romanic  *biscopo 
or  Vulgar  L.  (e)biscopus,  L.  episcopus,  from  Gr.  kiriaKOTros,  overlooker, 
overseer.8  In  Greek,  as  also  partly  in  Latin,  it  was  used  in  this  general 
sense,  being  also  the  title  of  various  civil  officers,  but  with  the  rise  of 
Christianity  it  came  to  be  applied  to  the  specific  ecclesiastical  officer.9 
The  OE.  biscop  differs  from  its  Latin  prototype  in  that  it  is  often  employed 
in  a  more  general  sense,  translating  also  pontifex,  flamen,  sacerdos,  etc., 
by  no  means  limited  to  Christian  conceptions.10 

6  See  article  in  NED. 

8  For  examples  see  Du  Cange,  Glossarium  Mediae  et  Infimae  Latinitatis. 

7  N.  James,  Die  Englische  Kirche  in  ihrem  VerhaUnis  znm  Papst-  und  Konigtum,  Diss. 
Halle,  1893.    P.  30  ff.    See  MacG.,  p.  83. 

8  However,  F.  Kluge,  Urgermanisch,  3.  Auflage,  p.  37  says:  "Die  westgerm.  Lautformen 
fur  den  Begriff  'Bischof  haben  auch  ein  hoheres  Alter  als  eine  lateinische  Entlehnung 
aufweisen  wurde,  und  so  wird  angs.  bisceop,  ahd.  biscof  wohl  got-griech.  Ursprungs  sein 
(aipiskaiipus  =  gr.  eTrlaicoTros)." 

9  See  bishop  in  NED. 

10  MacG.,  p.  92. 


33]  ECCLESIASTICAL  OFFICES  33 

55.  In  OE.  poetry  biscop  occurs  14  times,  mostly  in  the  sense  of  Chris- 
tian ecclesiastic.  Eusebius  is  Rome  bisceop  El.  1051,  he  gesette  on  sacerdhad  / 
in  Jerusalem  Judas  pam  folce  /  to  bisceope,  1056,  the  term  referring  to 
Judas  or  Cyriacus  also  in  lines  1072,  1094,  1126,  1216,  with  the  epithet 
se  halga  1093.  Chr.  Ill,  B,  14,  we  are  told,  of  Brytene  gewat,  bisceop  se 
goda  I  purh  gecyndne  craft,  Pam  wees  Cyneweard  nama.  In  Durham  rests 
among  others  Aidan  biscop,  Durham  11,  while  we  hear  line  13,  Is  fierinne 
midd  heom  Aidelwold  biscop.  Two  further  examples  occur,  Men.  104,  where 
St.  Augustine  is  spoken  of  as  bisceop  bremran,  while  Andrew  anne  gesette 
I  ...  /  in  pare  beorhtan  byrig  bisceop  pam  leodum,  And.  1649. 

56.  While  in  prose  examples  of  biscop  referring  to  the  Jewish  highpriests 
are  very  numerous,11  only  one  occurs  in  poetry,  And.  607,  peer  bisceopas 
and  boceras  /  and  ealdormenn  ceht  besceton  /  meedelheegende.  Biscop  is  also 
twice  applied  to  Melchisedec  of  Salem,  who  was  priest  and  king  at  the 
same  time,  namely  Gen.  2103,^^  wees  se  mcera  Melchisedec,  /  leoda  bisceop, 
and  2123,  pees  hereteames  /  ealles  teofian  sceat  Abraham  sealde  /  godes  bis- 
ceope. To  heathen  priests  biscop  is  never  applied  in  the  poetry,  though 
the  instances  of  this  use  of  the  word  are  likewise  comparatively  numerous 
in  prose.12 

57.  Of  biscop  only  one  compound,  biscophad,  is  found  in  the  poetry, 
and  this  only  twice.  In  the  example  from  Ps.  CVIII,  8,  Wesan  him  dagas 
deorce  and  dimme  and  feawe  and  his  bisceophad  brucan  feondas  [et  episcopa- 
tum  ejus  accipiat  alter),  the  word  is  used  in  a  purely  secular  sense,  but  in 
El.  1211,  Wees  se  bissceophad  /  feegere  befeested,  the  Christian  episcopal 
office  is  referred  to. 

58.  To  the  Or  dines  majores  belongs  furthermore  the  preost,  priost,  m., 
OHG.  prest,  priast,  ON.  prestr.  Etymologically  the  term  goes  back  eventu- 
ally to  Gr.  7rpecr/3i)repos,  elder,  used  as  elder  of  the  congregation  in  the  New 
Testament,  e.g.  Tit.  1,  5.  Soon  the  word  came  to  be  applied  in  the  sense 
of  sacerdos  to  the  Christian  ministers,  the  consecrated  persons  performing 
sacred  duties.  With  this  meaning  it  was  taken  over  into  Latin,  where  the 
term  sacerdos  as  a  name  for  the  sacrificing  priests  of  the  heathen  deities 
and  the  Jewish  priests  came  also  to  be  used  for  the  Christian  minister. 
The  OE.  preost  and  the  other  monosyllabic  forms  are  supposed  to  go  back 
to  a  common  Romance  *prester,  though  the  origin  of  the  vowel  eo  and  the 
anterior  phonetic  history  of  the  forms  remain  to  be  cleared  up.13 

59.  In  OE.  prose,  the  word  preost  may  denote  either  a  masspriest  (the 
L.  presbyter),  or  a  priest  in  general,  any  member  of  the  seven  orders  of  the 

11  Ibid.,  p.  97. 

12  Ibid. 

18  NED.  under  priest.  Compare  Pogatscher,  142.  A  discussion  of  various  attempts  to 
account  for  the  English  word  is  found  MacG.,  p.  70  ff. 


34  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [34 

clergy  proper,  thus  being  often  used  in  the  sense  of  L.  sacerdos.u  Though 
of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  prose,  the  term  appears  only  once  in  poetry, 
Chr.  Ill,  A,  8,  peer  wees  preosta  heap,  /  mycel  muneca  preat  mine  gefrcege  / 
gleawra  gegaderod.  The  term  meessere,  m.,  in  the  sense  of  meessepreost, 
curiously  enough,  is  once  used  for  the  three  Jewish  youths  in  the  fiery 
furnace,  bletsien  pe  pine  sacerdos,  sodfeest  cyning,  /  milde  mcesseras  mcerne 
dryhten,  Az.  149. 

60.  More  often  the  term  sdcerd,  mf.,  is  encountered.  As  its  prototype 
sacerdos  in  Latin,  the  OE.  word  could  be  applied  in  prose  to  a  Christian 
bishop  and  masspriest,  a  Jewish  priest  and  highpriest,  as  also  to  a  heathen 
priest.15  In  poetry  the  term  is  not  applied  directly  to  a  Christian  priest 
or  bishop,  but  a  passage  like  El.  1054-6,  pat  he  gesette  on  sacerdhad  /  in 
Jerusalem  Judas  pam  folce  /  to  bisceope,  shows  that  this  meaning  was  by 
no  means  foreign  to  the  mind  of  the  poet.  More  generally  sdcerd  is  used  to 
denote  the  Jewish  priests  or  highpriests,  though  sometimes  it  has  a  rather 
wide  meaning  as  in  Ps.  XCVIII,  6,  Moyses  and  Aaron  mcere  gebrofior  softe 
sacerdas  (Moyses  et  Aaron  in  sacerdotibus) .  Christ  himself  is  called  pone 
clcenan  eac  /  sacerd  sodlice,  Cr.  136-7.  As  referring  to  Jewish  dignitaries 
we  note,  (James)  fore  sacerdum  swilt  prow  ode,  Ap.  71,  (Christ)  septe  sacerdas 
sweotolum  tacnum,  And.  742;  the  term  also  occurs  Ps.  LXXVII,  64, 
CXXXI,  9,  17,  sacerdas  rendering  the  Vulgate  reading  sacerdotes. 

61.  Curiously  enough,  sdcerd  is  once  used  to  designate  the  three  Jewish 
youths  in  the  fiery  furnace,  bletsien  pe  pine  sacerdos,  sodfeest  cyning,  Az.  148. 
To  heathen  priests  the  term  is  not  applied  in  the  poetry,  other  designations 
being  employed. 

62.  Only  two  compounds  are  found  in  the  poetry,  each  being  used 
once.  Sacerdhad,  already  quoted  in  the  discussion  of  sacerd,  denotes  El. 
1054  sacerdotium,  the  rank  of  a  bishop.  Ealdorsacerd,  And.  670,  is  an 
appellation  of  the  Jewish  highpriest. 

63.  Of  the  two  other  classes  belonging  to  the  Or  dines  majores,  only 
one  is  mentioned  in  the  poetry,  namely  the  dlacon,  m.,  represented  by  the 
sole  example,  peenne  ford  gewat  /  ymb  preo  niht  pees  peodne  getrywe  /  purh 
martyrdom,  meere  diacon,  /  Laurentius,  Men.  145.  The  Or  dines  minor  es 
are  not  referred  to  in  the  poetry. 

64.  In  the  discussion  of  the  subject  of  the  monastic  clergy,  a  few  pre- 
liminary remarks  on  the  development  of  the  monastic  institution  will  not 
be  out  of  place.16 

14  Lingard,  History  and  Antiquities,  etc.,  I,  p.  134;  MacG.,  73  ff. 
16  MacG.,  p.  76. 

w  Based  upon  the  articles  dealing  with  the  subject  in  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  and 
the  Catholic  Encyclopedia. 


35]  ECCLESIASTICAL  OFFICES  35 

65.  Christian  monachism  was  inaugurated  by  St.  Anthony  in  Egypt 
about  300,  when  he  began  to  organize  the  life  of  ascetics  who  in  solitary 
retirement  had  given  themselves  up  to  spiritual  exercises.  Growing  out  of 
the  purely  eremitical  or  hermit  life,  Antonian  monachism  retained  many 
of  the  characteristic  features  inherited  from  its  origin,  there  being  for 
instance  no  organized  community  life. 

66.  Farther  south  in  Egypt  a  number  of  monasteries  were  organized 
by  St.  Pachomius  between  315-20,  regulated  in  all  details  by  minute  rules, 
with  prayers  and  meals  in  common.  There  was  also  a  highly  organized 
system  of  work,  which  made  the  different  institutions,  all  ruled  by  a 
centralized  form  of  government,  closely  akin  to  agricultural  and  industrial 
colonies. 

67.  St.  Basil  adapted  monastic  life  to  Greek  and  European  ideas,  and 
in  so  doing  followed  the  Pachomian  model,  eliminating  eremitical  life  and 
the  competitive  spiritual  athletics  which  flourished  in  Egypt.  However, 
his  example,  though  not  without  influence,  was  no  determining  factor  in 
shaping  monastic  ideals  in  the  West. 

68.  For  when,  about  350,  monachism  was  introduced  there,  the 
Antonian  ideal  with  its  solitary  life  and  excessive  austerities  was  followed. 
Climatic  conditions  and  racial  temperament  rendering  this  extreme 
Egyptian  pattern  unsuitable,  by  the  end  of  the  5th  century  monachism  in 
Western  Europe  was  in  a  disorganized  state.  From  it  St.  Benedict  rescued 
it  through  his  famous  Rule  (probably  written  about  530),  the  result  of 
mature  experience  and  observation,  which  gave  coherence,  stability,  and 
organization  to  the  monastic  institution.  Oriental  asceticism  and  rivalry 
in  austerities  were  eliminated,  and  the  individual  was  subordinated  to  the 
community.  The  idea  of  law  and  order  came  to  be  introduced  into  a 
society  which  formed  a  closely  knit  family,  where  productive  work  had  a 
large  part  in  the  daily  duties.  St.  Benedict  was  eager  to  establish  a 
' school,'  in  which  the  science  of  salvation  was  to  be  taught,  so  that  by 
renouncing  their  own  will  and  in  taking  up  arms  under  the  banner  of  the 
Lord,  the  monks  might  "deserve  to  become  partakers  of  Christ's  kingdom." 
The  regulations  breathe  the  spirit  of  discretion,  moderation,  and  extreme 
reasonableness,  showing  that  the  author  possessed  an  uncommon  fund  of 
common  sense. 

69.  St.  Benedict's  Rule  soon  supplanted  all  others,  and  is  conspicuous 
for  maintaining  undisputed  sway  for  centuries,  the  only  exception  being 
among  the  Irish  monks,  where  the  craving  for  hermit  life,  for  bodily  aus- 
terities, and  individual  piety  had  been  strong  from  the  first. 

70.  References  to  monks  in  OE.  poetry  are  extremely  rare,  though  a 
whole  poem  is  devoted  to  the  hermit  Guthlac.    He  himself  is  never  called 


36  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [36 

a  hermit  or  by  any  formal  monastic  name,  but  in  line  59  hermits  are  men- 
tioned, hafad  (devil)  bega  crceft,  /  eahted  anbuendra,  persons  who  dwell 
alone,  characterized  lines  52-4,  Sume  pa  wuniafi  on  westennum,17  /  secad 
and  gesitta'd  sylfra  ivillum  /  hamas  on  heolstrum.  hnbuend,  m.,  is  poetical 
and  found  only  once. 

71.  The  monastic  clergy  were  supposed  to  live  according  to  the  regol. 
The  word  goes  back  to  L.  *regula,  a  rule  or  ruler,  which  the  Germanic 
tribes  used  in  building  their  dwellings.18  The  original  meaning  still  occurs 
in  OE.  regol-sticca,19  a  rule  or  ruler  (the  instrument),  and  in  the  verb 
regolian,20  to  draw  lines  with  a  ruler.  After  the  introduction  of  monasticism 
it  assumed  its  ecclesiastical  meaning.  So  we  find  in  Guthlac  the  saint 
reporting  that  the  evil  spirits  showed  him  the  dwellings  of  men  and  setton 
me  in  edwit,  pat  ic  eade  forbar  /  rume  regulas  and  repe  mod  /  geongra  monna 
in  godes  temphim,  459-61.  The  allusion  hardly  includes  the  clergy  proper, 
who  are  also  not  to  be  thought  of  in  regolfccste,  men  who  strictly  observe  the 
rules,  Men.  44,  where  reference  is  made  to  Benedict's  death,  pane 
heriad  ivel  /  in  gewritum  wise,  wealdendes  peow  /  rinces  regolfaste. 

72.  Aside  from  general  statements,  such  as  Sume  him  pees  hades  hlisan 
willad  I  wegan  on  wordum  and  pa  weorc  ne  dot),  Gu.  31-2,  and  the  characteri- 
zation of  monks  Gu.  762-82,  etc.,  only  two  other  monastic  terms  appear  in 
OE.  poetry.  One  is  munuc,  munic,  m.,  OHG.  munih,  ON.  milnkr,  which 
according  to  its  etymology  (from  *muniko,  from  Vulgar  L.  *monicus,  for 
L.  monachus,  taken  from  Gr.  ixovaxbs)  meant  originally  a  religious  solitary, 
but  from  an  early  period  was  applied  to  coenobites,  which  eventually 
became  the  ordinary  use.21  It  occurs  only  twice  in  the  poetry,  both  ex- 
amples being  found  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle.  At  the  consecration  of 
Edgar  par  wees  preosta  heap,  /  my  eel  muneca  preat  mine  gefrage  /  gleawra 
gegaderod,  Chr.  Ill,  A,  9.  The  other  example,  Chr.  IV,  tells  of  a  monastic 
establishment.  The  king,  iElfred,  is  captured,  led  to  Eligbyrig  swa  gebun- 
denne  18,  but  on  the  ship  man  hine  blende  /  and  hine  swa  blindne  brohte 
to  ~Sam  munecon,  19-20. 

73.  The  other  monastic  term  is  abbot,  m.,  OHG.  abb  at,  ON.  abote, 
abbate.  In  the  East  d/3/3ds  was  originally  applied  to  all  monks,  but  in  the 
West  came  to  be  restricted  to  the  superior  of  a  monastery.  In  OE.  prose 
the  common  form  is  abbod,  abbud,22  taken  over  from  the  Latin  through  the 

17  In  a  gloss  of  ^Elfric  we  have  westensetla  as  the  equivalent  of  Latin  emerita.  Guthlac's 
dwelling  is  called  dnscld,  hermitage,  Gu.  1240. 

18  Pogatscher,  44  and  103. 
»  Used  by  /Elfric. 

20  Napier,  A.,  Contributions  to  Old  English  Lexicography  (1903-6),  316  (Clark  Hall's 
Dictionary). 
2i  NED. 
22  Compare  MacG.,  abbot,  pp.  114-15,  also  NED.  under  abbot. 


37]  ECCLESIASTICAL  OFFICES  37 

Romance.  In  the  12th  century  the  influence  of  L.  abbdtem  substituted  t 
for  d.  The  new  form  predominates  in  Middle  English,  and  occurs  also  in 
our  example  from  the  late  Durham  Poem,  Is  fierinne  midd  heom  Mfielwold 
biscop  J  and  fie  breoma  bocera  Beda  and  Boisil  abbot,  14. 

74.  In  the  poetry  no  references  to  the  dress  of  ecclesiastics  or  to  their 
source  of  income  are  found. 


38  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [38 


CHAPTER  IV 
CHURCH  BUILDINGS 

75.  When  the  Christian  missionaries  began  their  work  of  conversion  in 
England,  the  cult  of  the  heathen  gods  was  in  the  hands  of  a  priestly  hier- 
archy. For  the  worship  of  the  idols  temples  had  been  erected,  in  which 
sacrifices  were  offered.  It  seems  that  the  places  of  idolatry  received  little 
toleration  at  the  hands  of  men  who,  to  judge  from  the  scant  material 
available,  set  themselves  to  root  out  all  vestiges  of  a  heathen  tradition. 
It  is  true  that  the  diplomatic  Gregory  in  a  letter,  written  601,  had  counseled 
moderation,  for  Mellitus,  after  having  come  to  the  '  reverentissimum  virum 

fratrem  nostrum  Augustinum  episcopum,'  was  to  tell  him  "quid  diu  mecum 
de  causa  Anglorum  cogitans  tractavi:  videlicet  quia  f ana  idolorum  destrui  in 
eadem  gente  minime  debeant;  sed  ipsa  quae  in  eis  sunt  idola  destruantur ; 
aqua  benedictafiat,  in  eisdem  fanis  aspergatur,  altaria  construantur ,  reliquiae 
ponantur:  quia  si  fana  eadem  bene  constructa  sunt,  necesse  est  ut  a  cultu 
daemonum  in  obsequio  veri  Dei  debeant  commutari;  ut  dum  gens  ipsa  eadem 
fana  sua  non  videt  destrui,  de  corde  errorem  deponat,  et  Deum  verum  cog- 
noscens  ac  adorans,  ad  loca  quae  consuevit,  familiarius  concurrat.  'n  In  order 
that  the  people  may  be  more  easily  won  over,  some  outward  concessions 
in  regard  to  festivals  etc.  are  made.  For,  continues  he  who  knows  the 
human  heart,  "  duris  mentibus  simul  omnia  abscidere  impossibile  esse  non 
dubium  est,  quia  et  is  qui  summum  locum  ascendere  nititur,  gradibus  vel 
passibus  non  autem  saltibus  elevatur."-  It  seems  that  Gregory  had  merely 
adapted  himself  to  circumstances,  for  in  a  letter  to  King  Ethelbert  written 
a  few  months  before  he  exhorts  him  in  his  zeal  for  conversion  "idolorum 
cultus  insequere,  fanorum  aedificia  everte."3  There  is  reason  to  believe  that 
Coifi's  advice  to  the  Northumbrian  king  uut  templa  et  altaria  quae  sine 
fructu  utilitatis  sacravimus,  ocius  anathemati  et  igni  contradamus,,H  the 
highpriest  himself  profaning  the  temple  and  "jussit  sociis  destruere  ac 
succendere  fanum  cum  omnibus  septis  suis,"5  does  not  mark  an  isolated 
occurrence. 

76.  Instead  of  places  sacred  to  heathen  divinities,  Christian  churches 
and  houses  of  worship  rose,  and  these  were  made  as  imposing  as  possible 
by  the  Roman  missionaries,  men  not  ignorant  of  the  impression  created 
by  external  representation. 

1  Bede,  Historia  Ecclesiastica,  Book  I,  ch.  30,  Migne,  XCV,  p.  70. 
*  Ibid.,  Migne,  XCV,  p.  71. 

3  Ibid.,  ch.  32,  Migne  XCV,  p.  72. 

4  Ibid.,  Book  II,  ch.  13,  p.  104. 
s  Ibid.,  p.  105. 


39]  CHURCH  BUILDINGS  39 

77.  In  OE.  poetry  several  designations  for  Christian  churches  occur, 
but  on  the  whole  the  material  is  very  scant,  no  detailed  description  of  the 
building  or  its  interior  being  given.6  Aside  from  the  general  term  in  hus 
godes,  Ps.  LXXXIII,  11,  Cristes  hus,  CXXXIII,  2,  CXXXIV,  2,  his 
halige  hus,  LXXVII,  68,  and  similar  phrases,7  we  find  a  few  times  cirice, 
the  etymology  and  significance  of  which  have  already  been  discussed  in 
ch.  I,  under  II.  In  the  sense  of  Christian  church  building  we  have  the  word 
in  Elene,  where  we  read  pee t  hio  cirican  peer  /  on  pam  beorhhlide  begra  rcedum 
I  getimbrede,  tempel  dryhtnes  /  on  Caluarie  Criste  to  willan,  1007.  Cirice 
as  a  place  of  worship  occurs  also  And.  1633,  pa  se  modiga  het,  /  cyninges 
creeftiga  ciricean  getimbran,  /  gerwan  godes  tempel,  the  consecration  of  which 
is  mentioned  1646,  cirice  gehalgod.  In  the  passage  cwealde  Cristne  men, 
circanfylde,  Jul.  5,  it  is  hardly  to  be  doubted  that  churches  are  referred  to. 
And  Donne  hine  forcinnad  da  cirican  getuinnas,  Sal.  107,  would  seem  to  have 
no  other  meaning  than  that  the  sacred  buildings  of  the  Christians  keep 
away  the  evil  spirit,  possessing  a  magic  power  against  the  principle  of 
darkness. 

78.  The  learned  word  tempi,  tempel,  n.,  is  mentioned  no  fewer  than 
21  times  in  the  poetry,  though  not  always  in  the  sense  of  church  building. 
Thus  figuratively  the  Virgin  Mary  is  called  Christ's  temple  in  Cr.  206, 
while  in  line  707,  hi  godes  tempel  /  brcecan  and  bcemdon,  the  context  clearly 
indicates  that  the  body  or  the  congregation  of  the  faithful  is  meant. 
To  godes  temple,  El.  1057,  is  perhaps  applied  to  the  Christian  congregation 
at  Jerusalem.  In  a  somewhat  loose  sense  of  heaven  or  sky  tempel  may 
occur  Cr.  495,  Cyning  ure  gewat  /  purh  pees  temples  hrof,  peer  hy  to  segun 
(the  disciples  at  the  ascension).8  The  dwelling  of  St.  Guthlac  is  spoken 
of  as  a  temple  of  God  in  Gu.  975,  1086,  and  1122,  which  for  instance  in 
lines  1264  and  1284  is  called  pcet  halge  hus,  while  120  it  was  stated  se  peer 
haligne  ham  arcerde. 

79.  A  few  times  tempel  is  synonymous  with  cirice  in  the  sense  of  Chris- 
tian church  building.  Clearly  so  in  the  passage  ciricean  getimbran,  /  gerwan 
godes  tempel,  And.  1634,  as  also  cirican  .../.../  getimbrede,  tempel 
dryhtnes,  El.  1009,  furthermore  on  pam  stedewange  /  girwan  godes  tempel, 
1021.  Some  kind  of  a  building,  though  a  monastery  is  probably  meant, 
is  indicated  Gu.  461,  the  saint  observing  the  rume  regulas  and  repe  mod  / 
geongra  monna  in  godes  templum. 

6  For  OHG.  terms  compare  Raumer,  p.  303  ff.,  for  ON.  Kahle,  I,  346  ff.,  II,  118  ff. 

7  Gebedstow  will  be  treated  in  chapter  VI. 

8  But  see  Bright,  Modern  L.  Notes,  XIII,  p.  27,  where  he  explains  that  the  passage  refers 
to  a  large  round  church  with  its  porches  on  the  Mt.  of  Olives,  the  inner  house  remaining 
uncovered  on  account  of  the  passage  of  our  Lord's  body.  Taken  from  the  first  traveller's 
account  of  the  Holy  Land,  with  which  the  poet  may  have  been  acquainted.  See  also  note 
on  fine  495,  p.  122  ff.  in  Cook's  Christ. 


40  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [40 

80.  More  often  we  have  the  term  as  a  designation  of  the  Jewish  temple, 
as  in  And.  667,  pa  we  becomon  to  pam  cynestole,  /peer  getimbred  was  tempel 
dryhtnes  /  heah  and  homgeap,  also  707,  he  in  temple  gestod.  Cr.  186  Joseph 
speaks  of  having  received  Mary  as  a  virgin  of  pam  torhtan  temple  dryhtnes, 
while  1139  pees  temples  segl  is  mentioned,  characterized  1135  as  godwebba 
cyst.  The  passage  Men.  22  also  refers  to  a  Jewish  sanctuary,  mentioning 
that  Mary  beam  wealdendes  brohte  to  temple.  Specific  references  to  Solo- 
mon's temple  are  furnished  in  Daniel,  the  enemies  bereafodon  pa  receda 
wuldor  readan  golde,  /  since  and  seolfre  Salomones  tempi,  60,  when  da  hie 
tempel  strudon,  /  Salomanes  seld,  711.  Daniel  in  his  speech  mentions  not 
only  the  golden  vessels  which  have  been  stolen,  but  also  that  they  were 
stored  near  the  most  sacred  article  of  the  Jewish  sanctuary,  the  ark,  da  cer 
Israela  in  ce  hcefdon  /  cet  godes  earce,  Dan.  751-2,  the  only  other  occurrence 
of  this  meaning  of  the  term  in  the  poetry  being  El.  399. 

81.  In  the  Psalms  tempel  is  sometimes  used  synonymously  with  godes 
hits,  his  halige  hus,  f  ale  hus,  Crlstes  hus,  and  similar  terms.  Thus  we  have, 
Ealle  we  din  hus  ecum  godum  jaeger e  fyllad :  faste  is  pin  tempi  ece  and 
wroeclic  awa  to  feore  (templum  tuum),  LXIV,  5,  on  pinum  temple  tidum 
gehalgod  {a  templo  tuo),  LXVII,  26,  and  Eac  ic  pin  tempel  tidum  weordige 
pcet  halige  hus  holde  mode  (adorabo  ad  templum  sanctum  tuum),  CXXXVII,  2. 

82.  A  word  twice  used  to  designate  Solomon's  temple  is  ealh,  alh,  m.> 
so  in  Ps.  LXXVIII,  \,  pa  pin  f ale  hus  ealh  haligne  yfele  gewemdan  {templum 
sanctum  tuum),  as  also  in  the  fulsome  praise  of  it  Ex.  391-5,  getimbrede 
tempel  gode,  /  alh  haligne,  .../.../  heahst  and  haligost,  haledum 
gefrcegost,  /  mast  and  mcerost.  The  same  term  is  employed  once  in  a  com- 
pound denoting  places  of  heathen  worship,  diofolgild,  /  ealde  eolhstedas 
anforlcetan,  And.  1642. 

83.  In  the  Psalms  there  are  further  renderings  of  the  Jewish  sanctuary 
or  indications  of  certain  parts  or  furniture,  though  they  are  few.  The 
tabernacle  at  Shiloh  is  referred  to  in  hepaswa  gelomewidsoc  snytruhilse,was 
his  agen  hus  (tabernaculum) ,  LXXVII,  60.  Hdlignes  renders  sanctuarium 
LXXXII,  9;  atria  is  translated  by  wictunas,  XCV,  8,  the  oblique  atriis  by 
on  wictunum  XCIX,  3,  though  generally  atriis  is  expressed  by  on  cafertu- 
num,  as  in  on  pinum  cafertunum,  CXXI,  2,  on  cafertunum  Cristes  huses, 
CXXXIII,  2,  CXXXIV,  2.  A  rather  general  term  is  on  halgum  {in  sancto), 
as  LXII,  2,  LXVII,  23,  etc.  Other  designations  are  also  encountered, 
but  they  are  of  such  a  nature  that  we  need  not  list  them. 

84.  In  addition  to  the  ark  of  the  covenant,  the  altar  of  the  Jewish  tem- 
ple is  mentioned  several  times.  The  term  is  wlgbed,  nm.,  originally  holy 
table  or  sacrifice  table.  Wigbedu  Ps.  LXXXIII,  4,  renders  altaria,  while 
we  have  od  wigbedes  wraste  hornas  {ad  cornu  altaris)  CXVII,  25,  and  hio 


41]  CHURCH  BUILDINGS  41 

Zozt  halige  cealf  /  on  wigbed  pin  milium  asettafi  {tunc  imponent  super  altar e 
tuum  vitulos),  Ps.  L.  138.  In  Genesis  the  same  term  is  used  for  Abraham's 
altars,  as  may  be  seen  from  pa  se  rinc  gode  /  wibed  worhte,  1791,  Abraham 
pa  odere  side  /  wibed  worhte,  1806,  characterized  in  on  pam  gledstyde  1810; 
wibed  occurs  also  1882,  while  we  have  weobedd  worhte  and  his  waldende  / 
on  pam  glcedstede  gild  onscegde,  2841-2.  As  a  designation  of  heathen  altar 
the  word  does  not  seem  to  occur,  though  the  use  of  wig(wih),  n.,  either 
alone  or  in  compounds,  denoting  idols,  heathen  worship  or  sacrifice,  is 
common  enough.9 

85.  Three  times  in  the  poetry  the  term  mynster,  n.,  is  found.  It  is 
likely  that  in  one  place  it  has  kept  the  meaning  originally  attached  to  it, 
namely  the  dwelling  place  of  the  monks  (mynster  from  *munistrjo,  Vulgar 
L.  *monisterium,  L.  monasterium)  .10  We  have  (he — sceawode)  under  haligra 
hyrda  geivealdum  /  in  mynsterum  monna  gebceru  Gu.  387,  and  as  here  and 
461,  rume  regulas  and  repe  mod  /  geongra  monna  in  godes  templum,  the  same 
objects  are  described,  it  would  seem  that  monasteries  are  referred  to. 

86.  But  in  the  two  other  examples  a  church  building  must  be  assumed. 
So  Men.  106,  Nu  on  Brytene  rest  /  on  Cantwarum  cynestole  neah  /  mynstre 
mcerum,  where  St.  Augustine's  resting  place  is  pointed  out.  To  be  sure, 
Grein  glosses  it  with  monasterium,  but  the  glorious  mynster  can  be  nothing 
else  than  the  splendid  church  in  which  the  archbishop  was  buried.11  From 
an  early  time  this  connotation  of  the  term  is  available,  the  NED.  quoting 
the  first  example  c.960,  Laws  of  K.  Edgar  I,  1:  Man  agife  celce  teofiunge  to 
pam  ealdan  mynstre  (Lat.  ad  matrem  ecclesiam)  pe  seo  hyrnes  tohyrfi.  The 
interpretation  church  building  is  also  demanded  in  the  passage  Eardiad  oet 
dem  eadigen  in  fiem  minstre  /  unarimeda  reliquia,  /  monia  wundrum  gewurdad, 
Durham  17,  which  the  Latin  prose  account  describing  the  burial  place  of 
the  saints  resting  in  the  cathedral  at  Durham  renders  very  probable,  if 
not  certain.12  The  term  mynster,  though  at  first  only  used  of  a  church 
having  its  origin  in  a  monastic  establishment,  came  to  be  applied  later  to 
any  church  of  considerable  size  or  importance. 

87.  In  Chr.  IV  parts  of  a  church  at  a  monastery  are  mentioned.  The 
imprisoned  king  is  buried  ait  pam  westende,  pam  styple  Jul  gehende  /  on 
pam  su'dportice,  24-5,  for  we  have  been  informed  poet  man  hine  Icedde  /  to 
Eligbyrig  swa  gebundenne,  17-18,  and  hine  swa  blindne  brohte  to  dam  mune- 
con,  20. 

I 

9  See  chapter  VIII,  326. 

10  NED. 

11  Bede,  Historia  Ecdesiaslica,  Book  II,  ch.  3.  Compare  also  the  discussion  of  the  mean- 
ing of  mynster  in  Kahle,  I,  p.  349  f.    See  also  B-T. 

12  Wuelker,  Grundriss,  p.  346. 


42  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [42 


CHAPTER  V 
FESTIVALS  AND  HOLY  SEASONS 

88.  In  general,  it  may  be  assumed  that  the  expression  halige  dagas 
served  as  a  designation  for  the  holy  seasons  and  festivals  of  the  Church, 
illustrated  by  such  a  passage  as  ac  sceal  wintrum  frod  /  on  circule  crozjte 
findan  /  halige  dagas,  Men.  66-8,  just  as  in  OHG.  wihe  taga  or  heilege  taga 
and  in  ON.  helgar  tiper  is  employed.  Aside  from  the  Menology,  which  gives 
a  catalog  of  haligra  Hid  that  are  to  be  observed  according  to  the  edict  of 
the  Saxon  king,  references  to  holy  days  and  seasons  in  OE.  poetry  are 
extremely  rare.1 

89.  Of  the  days  of  the  week  we  have  Sunday  mentioned  as  sunnan- 
dceg  (dies  solis),  the  OHG.  sunnun  tag,  which  seems  to  be  entirely  identified 
with  the  Hebrew  Sabbath,  as  is  gathered  from  Dox.  24-6,  (and  on  pone 
seofodan  pu  gerestest).  pa  wees  geforfiad  pin  fcegere  weorc  /  and  du  sunnan- 
dceg  sylf  halgodest  /  and  gemcersodest  hine  manegum  to  helpe.  In  reality,  the 
first  day  of  the  week  came  to  be  celebrated  as  the  principal  day  for  public 
worship  in  memory  of  the  resurrection  of  Christ.  The  setting  apart  of  a 
day  for  public  worship  would  be  introduced  into  England  by  the  mission- 
aries, and  the  Doxology  shows  that  the  custom  was  well  established,  pone 
heahan  dceg  healdafi  and  freodiap  /  ealle,  pa  ~Se  cunnon  cristene  peawas, 
I  haligne  heortlufan  and  dess  hehstan  gebod,  27-29. 

90.  In  discussing  the  festivals  mentioned,  we  shall  follow  the  Menology 
in  beginning  with  Christmas.  The  word  Crlstes  mcesse  does  not  come  into 
use  until  a  late  period,  the  first  occurrence  recorded  by  the  NED.  being  for 
the  year  1101  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  a  situation  paralleled  in 
OHG.,  where  the  term  does  not  occur  at  all,  though  Raumer2  asserts,  with- 
out furnishing  the  least  proof,  that  it  undoubtedly  was  in  use.  In  OE.  the 
date  was  fixed  on  the  25th  of  December,  Men.  226-7,  and  the  birth  of 
Christ  is  mentioned  Men.  2  as  on  midne  winter. z  From  Bede's  statement 
we  gather  that  the  day  was  celebrated  among  the  Christian  Angles,  but 
long  before  it  had  been  a  festival  among  the  heathen,  who  on  that  day  began 
their  year:  "  (Antiqui  autem  Anglorum  populi)  Incipiebant  autem  annum 
ab  octavo  Calendarum  Januariarum  die,  ubi  nunc  natale  Domini  celebramus. 
Et  ipsam  noctem  nunc  nobis  sacrosanctam,  tunc  gentili  vocabulo  Modranicht, 

1  For  OHG.  compare  Raumer,  p.  306  ft".,  for  ON.  Kahle,  I,  353  ff. 

2  Einwirkung  des  Christentums,  etc.,  p.  307. 

3  Not  to  be  considered  a  general  term,  but  having  the  more  specific  meaning  of  Christmas. 
See  Bibl.  II,  p.  282,  note. 


43]  FESTIVALS  AND  HOLY  SEASONS  43 

id  est,  matrum  noctem,  appellabant,  ob  causam,  ut  suspicamur,  ceremoniarum 
quas  in  ea  pcrvigiles  agebant.,H 

91.  During  the  first  centuries  of  the  Christian  era  Epiphany  served  as 
the  celebration  of  the  physical  birth  of  Christ  as  well  as  of  the  spiritual, 
and  of  several  other  occurrences  in  the  life  of  the  Lord.  It  was  observed 
on  the  6th  of  January,  and  came  to  be  looked  upon  in  England  as  the 
fulwihttiid  /  eces  drihtnes,  .  .  .  /  pane  'twelfta  dag'  tireadige  /  heeled 
headurofe  hatad  on  Brytene,  Men.  11-14,  namely  the  twelfth  day  after  the 
birth  of  Christ,  that  date  having  become  fixed  on  the  25th  of  December. 

92.  On  the  second  of  February  the  most  ancient  of  all  the  festivals 
in  honor  of  the  Virgin  Mary  was  celebrated.  Reference  to  it  is  made  in 
we  Marian  massan  healdad,  /  cyninges  modor,  Men.  20.  OE.  mcesse,  f.,  is 
from  Vulgar  L.  messa,  Eccl.  L.  missa.  It  is  generally  thought  that  L. 
missa  is  a  verbal  substantive  formed  like  repidsa  etc.  In  the  early  cen- 
turies it  was  used  in  the  general  meaning  of  religious  service,  though  in  an 
eminent  sense  it  always  denoted  the  Eucharist,  the  celebration  of  the 
mass.5  In  the  East  the  second  of  February  was  primarily  a  festival  of  the 
Lord,  while  in  the  West  the  Virgin  stood  in  the  foreground,  though  even 
here  the  antiphons  and  the  responsories  remind  one  of  the  original  idea, 
which  is  also  present  in  the  passage  forpan  heo  (Mary)  Crist  on  pam  dcege, 
beam  wealdendes  brohte  to  temple,  Men.  21-22.  Originally  the  festival  had 
been  celebrated  on  the  14th  of  February,  forty  days  after  the  nativity  of 
Christ,  but  with  the  shifting  of  that  date  to  the  25th  of  December,  Mary- 
mas  was  moved  accordingly  to  the  2nd  of  February.6 

93.  The  great  festival  of  the  church  year  was  Easter,  the  memorial 
of  the  resurrection  of  Christ.  While  mention  of  his  resurrection  is  not 
infrequent,  as  for  instance  on  pam  oftust  cymd  /  seo  mcere  Hid  mannnm  to 
frofre,  /  drihtnes  cerist,  Men.  56-8,  the  term  eastor,  frequent  in  prose,  occurs 
in  the  poetry  only  in  compounds,  and  then  only  a  few  times.  The  occur- 
rences are,  pees  pe  Eastermonad  to  us  cymed,  Men.  72,  wendan  (Jews) 
pat  he  on  pam  beorge  bidan  sceolde  /  ana  in  pare  easterniht,  Har.  15,  and 
he  of  dea"de  aras  /  onwald  of  eordan  in  pa  eastortld,  Gu.  1075.  As  in  the 
case  of  Christmas,  the  heathen  Angles  celebrated  a  festival  at  this  time 
in  honor  of  Eostre,  the  goddess  of  dawn  or  of  the  rising  sun,  our  scanty 
information  being  derived  again  from  Bede.  In  ch.  15  (De  mensibus 
Anglorum)  of  the  De  Temporum  Ratione7  he  tells  us:  " Rhed-monath  a  dea 
illorum  Rheda,  cui  in  Mo  sacrificabant,  nominatur ;  Eostur-monath,  qui 
nunc  paschalis  mensis  inter pretatur,  quondam  a  dea  illorum  quae  Eostre 

4  De  Temporum  Ratione,  ch.  15,  Migne,  Patrologiae  Latinae,  XC,  p.  356. 

5  NED. 

6  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  and  Catholic  Encyclopedia. 

7  Migne,  Patrologiae  Latinae,  XC,  p.  357. 


44  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [44 

vocabatur,  et  cui  in  Mo  festa  celebrabant,  nomen  habuit,  a  cujus  nomine 
mine  paschale  tempus  cognominant,  consueto  antiquae  observationis  vocabulo 
gaudia  novae  solemnitatis  vocantes." 

94.  Though  there  are  few  references  to  Easter  in  the  extant  poetry, 
the  importance  of  the  festival  and  also  the  paschal  controversy,  which 
stirred  the  Christians  of  England  until  the  question  was  finally  decided 
in  favor  of  the  Roman  party,  (Whitby,  664),  would  have  a  tendency  to 
put  it  into  the  foreground. 

95.  In  the  Menology  a  festival  is  mentioned  in  martira  gemynd,  .  .  . 
69,  pat  embe  nihgontyne  niht,  /pas  pe  Eastormonad  to  us  cymed,  / pat  man 
reliquias  raran  onginne'd,  /  halige  gehyrste  :  pcet  is  healic  dag,  /  bentiid 
bremu,  71-5.  This  seems  to  have  been  an  important  day,  though  in  our 
poem  a  different  date  than  the  one  fixed  later  is  mentioned.  "According 
to  the  Sarum  Breviary,  the  Festum  Reliquiarum  was  celebrated  on  the 
Sunday  after  the  feast  of  the  Translation  of  St.  Thomas  of  Canterbury 
(July  7),  and  it  was  to  be  kept  as  a  greater  double  'wherever  relics  are 
preserved  or  where  the  bodies  of  dead  persons  are  buried. '  "8 

96.  Relics  are  only  twice  referred  to  in  OE.  poetry,  the  learned  term 
reliquias,  m.,  being  used,  though  the  subject  must  have  occupied  a  prom- 
inent place  in  the  mind  of  both  ecclesiastics  and  the  people.  Already  at 
the  establishment  of  the  OE.  Church  they  are  mentioned.9  The  cult 
increased  in  the  following  centuries,  and  "at  the  beginning  of  the  9th 
century  .  .  .  the  exportation  of  the  bodies  of  martyrs  from  Rome  had 
assumed  the  dimensions  of  a  regular  commerce,"  as  "many  unprincipled 
persons  found  a  means  of  enriching  themselves  by  a  sort  of  trade  in  these 
objects  of  devotion,  the  majority  of  which  no  doubt  were  fraudulent."10 
Aside  from  the  mentioning  of  relics  in  the  Menology,  quoted  in  the  pre- 
ceding paragraph,  we  have  also  Eardiad  at  dem  eadigen  in  dem  minstre  / 
unarimeda  reliquia,  /  monia  wundrum  gewur'dad,  Durham  18.  Durham 
thus  possessed  a  good  collection  of  the  prized  remains,  which  would  add 
to  its  sanctity  and  attractiveness,  for  "there  was  a  keen  rivalry  between 
religious  centers  and  an  eager  credulity  fostered  by  the  desire  to  be  known 
as  the  possessors  of  some  unusually  startling  relic!"11  To  gain  possession 
of  a  prized  relic,  with  its  subsequent  fame  and  profit,  was  the  eager  desire 
of  church  authorities  and  monasteries,  and  in  their  dealings  they  were  not 
always  above  trickery  and  plain  stealing.  The  presence  of  Bede's  remains 
at  Durham  is  a  good  case  in  point.12 

8  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  under  relics. 

9  Bede,  Historia  Ecclesiastica,  Book  I,  ch.  29. 

10  Catholic  Encyclopedia. 

11  Ibid. 

n  Preface  to  Bede's  Ecclesiastical  History,  by  Giles,  p.  XXII. 


45]  FESTIVALS  AND  HOLY  SEASONS  [45 

97.  Forty  days  after  Easter,  the  ascension  of  Christ  would  be  cele- 
brated. But  though  that  fact  is  mentioned  in  several  places,  as  Men.  64-5, 
little  is  made  of  the  festival  in  the  poetry.  Pentecost  as  the  Christian 
festival  is  only  once  referred  to  in  the  poetry,  under  the  year  973  in  Chr. 
Ill,  A,  8,  par  was  blis  mycel  /on  pam  eadgan  dage  eallum  geworden,  /pone 
nifia  beam  nemnad  and  cegead  /  Pentecostenes  dag.  The  term  is  a  late 
adoption,  the  NED.  citing  its  first  occurrence  in  the  Homilies  of  ^Elfric 
(a.  1000). 

98.  In  the  Menology  a  number  of  saints'  days  are  mentioned.  So  for 
instance  in  panne  wuldres  pegn  /  ymb  preotyne,  peodnes  dyrling,  /  Johannes 
in  geardagan  weard  acenned,  /  tyn  nihtum  eac:  we  pa  Hid  healdafi  /  on  midne 
sumor  mycles  on  apelum,  115-19.  Immediately  after,  the  haligra  lid  .  .  . 
Petrus  and  Paulus  is  discussed.  On  the  first  of  August  would  come  hlaf- 
massan  dag  (Lammas),  140,  in  the  early  English  Church  celebrated  as  a 
harvest  festival,  at  which  loaves  of  bread,  made  from  the  first  ripe  wheat, 
were  consecrated.  In  the  Roman  Calendar  it  is  the  festival  of  St.  Peter's 
Chains,  originally  a  dedication  feast  of  a  church  of  the  apostle  at  Rome, 
perhaps  held  on  that  day  or  selected  to  replace  the  heathen  festivities 
that  occurred  on  the  first  day  of  August.13  In  the  Menology  the  harvest 
season  is  emphasized  in  connection  with  the  day. 

99.  Among  other  days  heahengles  Hid  in  harfeste,  /  Michaheles,  (29th 
of  September),  is  mentioned  177-8,  at  that  time  a  holy  day  of  obligation. 
A  very  important  festival  occurred  on  the  first  of  November,  And py  ylcan 
dage  ealra  we  healdad  /  Sancta  symbel,  para  pe  si?)  odde  ar  /  worhtan  in 
worulde  willan  drihtnes,  200.  Originally  each  saint  had  his  celebration  in 
certain  limited  sections  of  the  country,  but  in  order  that  nobody  should 
be  overlooked,  and  to  supply  any  deficiency  in  the  celebration  of  saints' 
feasts  during  the  year,  a  solemn  festival  in  honor  of  all  the  saints,  known 
and  unknown,  was  instituted.14  This  of  course  would  not  abolish  haligra 
tiid,  but  only  serve  to  correct  any  possible  oversight. 

13  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  under  Peter's  Chains,  The  Feast  of. 

14  Catholic  Encyclopedia.  , 


46  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [46 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  SPIRITUAL  SIDE  OF  THE  CHURCH 

I.     Worship 

100.  The  most  general  term  for  serving  God1  is  peowan,  to  serve,  used 
for  instance  in  pa  pant  cyninge  (namely  God)  peowad,  Gu.  62,  as  also  dryhtne 
peowde,  712.  In  a  religious  sense  the  compound  peowdont  occurs  El.  201, 
in  godes  peowdont,  referring  to  the  zeal  of  the  newly  converted  emperor 
Constantine.  Once  we  have  another  compound,  peowet,  mn.,  L.  Prayer 
III,  98,  though  not  denoting  service  of  God,  for  the  passage  reads  deofles 
peowet.  More  often  peowian  is  employed.  We  note,  gode  peowian,  Gen. 
264,  and peodne  peowian,  268.  In  a  somewhat  general  sense  of  serving  God 
the  all-ruling  power  we  find  the  verb  in  pat  hi  piowien  swilcum  piodfruman, 
Met.  XXIX,  94,  and  hiora  ordfruman  /  ne  piowoden,  peodne  mazrum,  99,  as 
also  and  blisse  gode  bealde  peowie  (servite  Domino),  Ps.  XCIX,  1. 

101.  In  the  services  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church,  in  common  with  the 
early  Mediaeval  Church,  the  mass  had  begun  to  occupy  the  most  promi- 
nent place.  In  prose  the  idea  is  often  expressed  by  ptcesse,  the  etymology 
of  which  has  been  considered  in  the  preceding  chapter.2  However,  this 
word  occurs  only  twice  in  the  poetry,  Marian  mcessan,  Men.  20,  and 
hlafmcessan  dceg,  140,  where  it  has  the  derived  meaning  of  festival,  and  not 
that  of  the  Eucharist,  to  which  it  was  originally  applied.  As  we  have  seen 
before,3  the  term  moessere  is  used  in  the  poetry  only  in  a  secondary  meaning. 
And  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass  is  only  once  clearly  referred  to. 

102.  More  and  more  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  came  to 
be  looked  upon  as  a  repetition,  though  bloodless,  of  the  original  sacrifice 
of  Christ  on  the  cross.  An  OE.  word  used  for  heathen  and  Jewish  sacrifice 
alike  is  lac,  probably  connected  with  *laiko,  to  play,  to  dance,  as  applied 
to  actions  which  would  accompany  the  offering  of  sacrifices  and  hence 
might  be  transferred  to  the  sacrifice  itself.4  In  this  sense  of  offering, 
sacrifice,  as  applied  to  heathen  gods,  the  term  is  used  for  instance  in  pozt  pu 
lac  hrape  /  onsecge  sigorttfre,  Jul.  254-5.  In  Genesis  there  are  a  number  of 
examples,  as  975-6,  referring  to  the  sacrifice  brought  by  Cain  and  Abel, 
1497  ff.,  by  Noah,  and  1792,  applied  to  Abraham's  offering,  etc.    In  the 

1  For  terms  of  worship  in  OHG.  compare  Raumer,  p.  309  ff.,  for  ON.  Kahle,  I,  p.  358  ff. 

2  Under  Marymas,  92. 

3  Chapter  III,  59. 

4  See  Grimm,  D.M.,  I,  p.  32,  also  B.-T.  under  lac  and  the  NED.  under  lake.  The  sense  of 
offering,  sacrifice,  is  found  only  in  OE. 


47]  THE  SPIRITUAL  SIDE  OF  THE  CHURCH  47 

Psalms  it  occurs  a  number  of  times,  thus,  (Eton  deadra  lac  (sacrificia  mortuo- 
rum),  CV,  22,  applied  to  the  heathen  worship  of  the  Children  of  Israel, 
and  pcet  ic  pe  laces  lof  lustum  secge  (tibi  sacrificabo  hostiam  landis),  CXV,  7. 
There  we  have  also  the  poetic  afenldc  {sacrificium  vespertinum),  CXL,  3, 
and  berneldc  .  .  .  /deadra  neata  (holocaustis) ,  L.  123.  Keeping  in  mind 
that  the  mass  was  conceived  of  as  a  sacrifice,  we  are  not  surprised  to  find 
that  it  is  said  of  the  saint  in  Gu.  1084,  lac  onscegde  /  .  .  .  /  gcestgerynum 
in  godes  temple.  Otherwise  the  idea  of  the  mass  thus  expressed  would  not 
seem  to  occur  in  the  poetry. 

103.  Onsecgan,  to  vow  or  sacrifice,  we  have  in  the  example  just  quoted. 
It  is  used  both  in  a  heathen  and  non-heathen  sense;  for  the  former,  we  note 
pcet  pu  lac  hrape  /  onsecge  sigortifre,  Jul.  255,  for  the  latter  pu  scealt  Isaac 
me  I  onsecgan,  sunu  "dinne  sylf  to  tibre,  Gen.  2852.  Tifer,  n.,  in  the  sense 
of  sacrifice,  is  used  a  few  times,  so  in  the  preceding  passage,  as  halig  tiber 
Ex.  415,  etc.    Compounds  such  as  sigetiber  also  occur. 

104.  Next  to  the  mass,  preaching  would  form  an  important  part  of 
the  services,  and  in  the  missionary  period  might  even  seem  to  overshadow 
the  former.  For  obvious  reasons  we  do  not  confine  ourselves  to  terms  that 
indicate  a  particular  and  definite  function  in  a  well  ordered  service.  The 
most  general  term  used  would  be  to  teach,  as  exemplified  Jul.  638,  where 
it  is  said  of  the  saint  Ongon  heo  pa  Iceran.  Similarly  we  find  leode  lozrde  on 
lifes  weg,  And.  170,  pegnas  Icerde,  462,  and  Lccrde  pa  pa  leode  on  geleafan 
weg,  1680,  etc.  A  general  term  is  also  bodian,  to  bring  or  announce  a  mes- 
sage, used  in  Christ's  missionary  command  to  his  disciples,  bodiafi  and 
bremad  beorhtne  geleafan,  Cr.  483,  as  also  Bodia'd  cefter  bnrgum  beorhtne 
geleafan,  And.  335.  However,  more  often  the  word  occurs  in  the  general 
meaning  of  to  announce,  tell,  and  seldom  in  the  strict  sense  of  evangelizare. 
Other  phrases  are  used  extensively,  sometimes  indicating  the  result  of 
the  effort.  Thus  we  have,  pe  fill  gehweorfest  to  heofonleohte  /  purh  minne 
naman,  And.  974-5,  stepton  hie  sodczvidum,  Dan.  446,  pam  pe  his  spel 
berafi,  479,  hie  dryhtnes  ce  deman  sceoldon,  /  reccan  fore  rincan,  Ap.  10-11, 
as  also  par  ic  dryhtnes  <z  deman  sceolde,  And.  1403.  We  have  also  for 
example  such  statements  as  panon  Israhelum  ece  rcedas  /  .  .  .,  /  heah- 
pungen  wer  halige  sprcece,/  deop  cerende,  Ex.  515-18,  but  these  and  similar 
expressions  hardly  need  any  further  treatment.  Godspellian  will  be  dis- 
cussed in  connection  with  godspel. 

105.  For  the  preacher  occur  such  terms  as  boda,  the  compound  spelboda 
having  been  noted  before  as  designation  of  the  Twelve.5  In  Guthlac  there 
is  a  reference  to  the  saint  as  eadgum  otbodan,  909,  and  as  epelbodan  .  .  .,  / 
pone  leofestan  lareoiv  gecorenne,  976.    Lareow,  teacher,  occurs  also  elsewhere. 

5  Chapter  II,  under  IV,  34. 


48  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [48 

106.  Prayer,  the  communion  of  the  faithful  with  God,  forms  a  very- 
important  part  in  the  service  of  the  Lord.  This  act  is  often  expressed  in 
OE.  by  bidden,  the  OHG.  term  being  bittan,  ON.  bipja.  The  OE.  word  has 
various  shades  of  meaning,  being  used  to  render  such  Latin  terms  as  petere, 
poscere,  precari,  deprecari,  rogare,  postulate.  As  biddan  is  so  extremely 
common  in  the  poetry,  a  few  characteristic  examples  will  suffice.  Thus 
we  have  the  construction  with  the  accusative  of  the  person  and  the  genitive 
of  the  thing  prayed  for,  Abraham  ongan  arra  biddan  /  ecne  drihten,  Gen. 
2750,  with  the  dative  of  the  person  for  whom  one  prays,  (pat  ge)  eow  lif- 
frean  lissa  bidde,  Ex.  271.  A  preposition  is  used  Cr.  1353,  eadmode  to  eow 
arna  bcedun,  while  in  Ap.  89-91,  in  seeking  help  of  the  apostles,  the  author 
asks  another  pcet  he  geomrum  me  /  pone  halgan  heap  helpe  bidde,  /  f rides 
and  fultomes,  several  features  being  illustrated  in  one  sentence.  From  the 
Psalms  we  quote,  bcedan  (ut  peter ent),  LXXVII,  20,  Biddad  eow  (rogate), 
CXXI,  6,  and  (ic)  earn  biddende  bealde  drihten  (ad  Dominum  deprecatus 
sum),  CXLI,  1. 

107.  Gebiddan,  in  the  sense  of  orare,  adorare,  is  also  used  a  number  of 
times,  especially  in  the  Psalms.  We  have,  gebiddap  him  to  pissum  beacne, 
Rood  B,  83,  Gebad  ic  me  to  pan  beame,  122,  and  gebidde  me  to  pe,  bearna 
selost,  Prayer  III,  48.  We  note  further,  ic  to  fie,  ece  drihten,  sodum  gebidde 
(ad  te  orabo),  Ps.  V,  2,  and  nepufremedne  godfylsta  gebiddest  (neque  adorabis 
deum  alienum),  LXXX,  9.  Once  abiddan  in  the  sense  of  to  intercede  occurs, 
he  abiddan  mag,  Gen.  2660. 

108.  From  the  same  stem  we  find  the  noun  gebed,  n.,  which  occurs  a 
number  of  times.  In  Jul.  388  the  spiritual  warrior  is  called  beald  in  gebede. 
We  have,  begen  pa  gebrodor  to  gebede  hyldon,  And.  1027,  Hwilum  to  gebede 
feollon  I  .  .  .  and  sigedrihten  /  godne  gretton,  Gen.  777,  similarly  847; 
and  gebedu  seced  /  clanum  gehygdum  and  his  cneo  biged,  Ph.  458-9.  The 
Pater  Noster  is  characterized  in  mid  dy  beorhtan  gebede,  Sal.  43.  Prayer 
acquires  the  quality  of  praise  Dan.  406,  We  dec  herigad,  halig  drihten,  / 
and  gebedum  bremad.  In  Exhortation  8  the  noun  is  modified,  pcet  halige 
gebed,  as  also  in  hold  gebed,  Ps.  CI,  15,  where  the  Vulgate  has  only  precem. 
We  note  further  from  the  Psalms,  God,  min  gebed  (orationem  meam),  LIII, 
2,  min  gebed  (orationem  meam),  LX,  4,  similarly  LXVIII,  13,  etc.;  gehyr 
min  gebed  (precem  meam),  LXXX VII,  2. 

109.  Ingebed  is  found  once,  Gange  min  ingebed  on  pin  gleawe  gesihd, 
Ps.  LXXXVII,  2,  the  Latin  Intret  in  conspectu  tuo  oratio  mea  probably 
explaining  the  form. 

110.  Of  other  compounds  there  occurs  gebedstbw,  the  place  of  prayer. 
Only  two  examples  are  encountered,  ne  mag  /  .  .  .  lenge  gewunian  /  in 
gebedstowe,  Jul.  376,  and  pccnnc  ic  synful  slea  swide  mid  fyste  /  breost  mine, 
beate  on  gebedstowe  (percutiam  pugnis  rea  pectora,  14),  Doom  30. 


49]  THE  SPIRITUAL  SIDE  OF  THE  CHURCH  49 

111.  Another  term  for  prayer  is  ben,  f.,  ON.  b0n,  a  word  not  found  in 
the  other  Germanic  languages.  A  few  characteristic  examples  will  suffice. 
Used  by  men  to  men  we  have,  ic  bidde  eow  benum  nu  da  (vos  precor,  16), 
Doom  33.  In  a  religious  sense  we  note,  let  his  ben  cuman  in  da  beorhtan 
gesceaft,  Gu.  749,  similarly  El.  1088;  send-on  hira  bene  fore  beam  godes, 
And.  1028,  and  similarly  1613.  Of  the  thief  on  the  cross  it  is  said,  his 
bcna  bebead  breostgehigdum  {verba  precantia  clamat,  30),  Doom  60.  From 
the  Psalms  we  note,  he  heora  bene  bealde  gehyrde  {orationem),  CV,  33, 
similarly  CI,  15;  ne  forseoh  cefre  sariges  bene  (deprecationem  meant),  LIV,  1, 
ingange  min  ben  (intret  postulatio  mea),  CXVIII,  170.  Gebedes  bene,  CXIV, 
1,  renders  vocem  orationis,  in  CXXIX,  1,  vocem  deprecationis. 

112.  Of  compounds  occur  eadbede,  found  once,  wes  pinum  scealcum  wel 
eadbede  {deprecabilis  esto  super  servos  tuos),  Ps.  LXXXIX,  15,  and  the 
poetic  bentid,  encountered  only  once,  pcet  (festival  in  honor  of  the  relics) 
is  healic  dceg,  /  bentiid  bremu,  Men.  75. 

113.  The  noun  bena,  petitioner,  is  also  found.  In  a  religious  sense  it 
occurs  in  swa  pu  bena  eart  / pinum  frumbeame,  Gen.  2357,  as  also  helpys 
benan,  Ps.  CI,  2. 

114.  Among  the  prayers  the  Pater  Noster  naturally  occupied  a  promi- 
nent place.  Three  different  poetic  versions  are  extant;  it  also  plays  an 
important  part  in  Salomon  and  Saturn.  There  it  is  called  se  gepalmtwigoda 
Pater  Noster,  12,  pcet  gepalmtwigede  Pater  Noster,  39,  while  we  have  Pater 
Noster  and  pcet  Palmtreow  167.  The  term  cantic,  m.,  used  in  Ic  niwlice 
niwne  cantic  singe,  Ps.  CXLIII,  10,  in  the  general  sense  of  Latin  canticum, 
is  applied  to  it  several  times.  Thus  we  have,  durh  pees  cantices  cwyde 
Cristes  linan,  Sal.  17,  "done  cantic,  24,  and  Ford  on  ha/ad  se  cantic  ofer  ealle 
Cristes  bee  /  widmcerost  word,  49. 

115.  Amen  is  taken  over  directly  from  the  Latin  and  used  a  considerable 
number  of  times,  as  in  L.  Prayer,  Doxology,  etc.,  etc.  There  seems  to  be 
an  explanation  of  it  in  the  passage  We  pcet  'sodlice'  secgad  ealle,  Dox.  51, 
as  also  in  'Weorde  pest,'  L.  Prayer  II,  37. 

116.  A  number  of  terms  related  to  prayer  and  praise  are  given  here, 
some  of  which  are  also  used  in  a  more  general  sense.  The  specific  religious 
meaning  is  generally  suggested  by  the  context. 

117.  Cleopian,  in  the  sense  of  clamare,  to  call  upon,  is  common.  We 
note  only  a  few  examples.  Fordam  we  clypiad  to  pe,  L.  Prayer  III,  2,  to 
suna  metudes  /  wordum  cleopodon,  El.  1318,  ic  me  to  wuldres  gode  puruh  ealne 
dceg  elne  clypige  {clamavi  ad  te  Domine  tota  die),  Ps.  LXXXVII,  9,  etc.,  etc. 
The  noun  clypung  is  met  with  once,  ongyt  mine  clypunga  {intellige  clamorem 
meum),  Ps.  V,  1.  ,(1 


50  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [50 

118.  Halsian,  healsian,  to  adjure,  to  call  upon,  is  also  used  a  number  of 
times  in  relation  to  God.  Thus,  Swylce  ic  pe  halsige,  hcelend  user,  /  fore 
pinum  cildhade,  Har.  118,  and  Ac  ic  pe  halsige  nu,  heofena  drihten,  Prayer 
III,  47.  The  noun  halsung  is  only  once  found  in  poetry,  mid  earum  onfoh 
.   .   .  mine  halsunge  (obsecrationem  meam),  Ps.  CXLII,  1. 

119.  Cigan,  with  its  variant  forms,  in  the  religious  sense  to  call  upon, 
is  especially  prominent  in  the  Psalms.  We  quote,  ne  hio  god  willa'd  geome 
ciegan  (Deum  non  invocaverunt) ,  LII,  5,  naman  pinne  neode  ciegen  (invocabi- 
mus  nomen  tuum),  LXXIV,  1,  similarly  LXXIX,  17,  etc.  The  form 
gecigan  also  occurs  a  few  times  in  the  Psalms  as  well  as  in  Ph.  454,  him 
dryhten  gecygd  /feeder  on  fultum. 

120.  Andettan  {and  &  hatan),  with  its  variants,  in  the  sense  of  Latin 
confiteri,  is  very  common  in  the  Psalms,  though  rarely  found  elsewhere. 
We  note,  Ic  pe  andette,  odmihtig  god,  /  pat  ic  gelyfe  on  pe,  Prayer  III,  36, , 
Ic  pe  andette  awa  to  feore  (confitebor  tibi),  Ps.  LI,  8,  pe  ondetten  ealle  peoda 
(confiteantur) ,  LXVI,  3.  The  compound  mcegenandettan  occurs  once, 
Forpon  fie  mannes  gepoht  mcegenandette'S  (confitebitur) ,  Ps.  LXXV,  7. 

121.  The  noun  andetnes,  L.  confessio,  is  very  rare,  occurring  only  a 
few  times  in  the  Psalms.  We  have  it  in  Ys  on  pinre  gesih'de  sod 
andetnes  (confessio),  XCV,  6,  him  andetnes  ceghweer  habban  (ad  confitendum) , 
CXXI,  4,  and  is  upp  ahafen  his  andetness  (confessio  ejus),  CXLVIII,  13. 
The  compound  wliteandet  occurs  once,  Ps.  CIII,  2,  where  pu  pe  weordlice 
wliteandette  gode  gegyredest  renders  the  Latin  confessionem  et  decorem 
induisti. 

122.  Mrendian,  to  intercede,  plead  a  cause,  is  found  Gen.  665,  where 
Eve  tells  Adam  concerning  the  devil  disguised  as  an  angel,  Unc  is  his  hyldo 
pearf:  /  he  mceg  unc  cerendian  to  pam  alwaldan  /  heofoncyninge. 

123.  Gegyrnan,  to  entreat,  beg,  we  find  Gu.  229,  Ic  me  j rid  wille  /  cet 
gode  gegyrnan,  also  43,  gegyrnafi. 

124.  The  idea  of  offering  thanks  is  expressed  a  considerable  number  of 
times  by  pancean.  Only  a  few  examples  need  be  given  here.  We  have, 
gode  pancedon,  Beow.  227,  similarly  1397,  1626,  etc.,  sceolde  his  drihtne 
pancian  /pees  leanes,  Gen.  257,  pcet  he  para  gifena  gode  pancode,  Dan.  86, 
pe  ponne  lustum  lofe  panciafi  (hymnum  dicent),  Ps.  LXIV,  14. 

125.  Very  often  the  noun  pane,  m.,  with  some  verb  is  used.  A  few 
examples  may  illustrate.  Scegde  meotude  pane,  And.  1469,  saga  ecneponc  / 
moerum  meotodes  sunu,  pcet  ic  his  modor  geweard,  Cr.  209,  scegde  ealles  pone  / 
dryhtna  dryhtne,  Jul.  593.  We  note  further,  Sie  fie  danc  and  lof,  peoda 
waldend,  And.  1451.    Compounds  are  common,  but  they  need  no  discussion. 


51]  THE  SPIRITUAL  SIDE  OF  THE  CHURCH  51 

126.  Among  the  terms  expressing  worship  or  praise  herian,  rendering 
the  L.  laudare,  celebrare,  is  extremely  common  in  the  poetry.  Only  a  few 
examples  need  be  given  here,  pat  hi  lof  godes  /  hergan  on  heahpu,  Judg.  48, 
We  fie  heria'd  halgtim  stefnum,  Hymn  7,  and  pe  purh  anne  gepanc  ealdor 
heria'd,  Creed  50.  Cadmon's  Hymn  begins  with  Nu  sculon  herigean  heofon- 
rices  weard.  Se  halga  wer  hergende  was  /  metodes  miltse,  we  have  Dan. 
334,  while  the  persecutor  geat  on  grasgewong  god  hergendra  (Mod),  Jul.  6. 
From  the  Psalms  may  be  noted  Herige  Hierusalem  georne  drihten!  here  pu 
Sion  swylce  pinne  sodne  god  (lauda  .  .  .  lauda)l  CXLVII,  1,  and  Ic  on 
god  min  word  georne  herige  (laudabo),  LV,  9,  etc.,  etc.  The  form  geherian 
also  occurs,  as,  se  purh  done  cantic  ne  can  Crist  geherian,  Sal.  24,  while 
aherian,  to  praise  adequately,  sufficiently,  is  encountered  only  once,  Ne 
mag  pe  aherian  haleda  anig,  Prayer  III,  10. 

127.  Of  the  noun  herenes  only  a  few  examples  are  found,  most  of  them 
in  the  Psalms.  On  herenesse  (laudationes) ,  Ps.  LV,  10,  herenes  drihtnes 
(laudatio  ejus),  CX,  8,  herenes  (laus),  CXVII,  14,  his  herenes  (laus  ejus), 
CXLIX,  1;  herenes  min  renders  eloquium  meum  CHI,  32.  In  the  other 
OE.  poems  the  term  is  found  Cr.  415,  pe  in  heahpum  sie  /  a  butan  ende  ece 
herenis,  and  Gu.  588,  (ge  sceolon)  heaf  in  helle  nales  herenisse  /  halge  habban 
heofoncyninges . 

128.  Weordian,  expressing  honor  or  worship  in  the  religious  sense,  is 
employed  very  many  times,  though  it  does  not  always  pertain  to  God,  but 
may  embrace  worship  or  praise  of  the  Rood,  etc.  We  note,  pat  he  ne  wolde 
wereda  drihtnes  /  word  wurdian,  Gen.  353,  and  hafdon  (heathen  nations) 
heora  hlaford  for  pone  hehstan  god  /  and  weorfiodon  swa  swa  wuldres  cyning, 
Met.  XXVI,  45;  ac  ic  weordige  wuldres  ealdor  (adoro),  Jul.  153,  and  we 
naman  pinne  on  ecnesse  a  weordien  (honorijicabo) ,  Ps.  LXXXV,  11. 

129.  In  the  sense  of  celebrare,  laudare,  the  term  occurs  a  number  of 
times,  thus,  par  se  eadga  eft  ecan  drihtnes  /  niwan  stefne  noman  weorfiode, 
Gen.  1886,  weorfiian  waldend  wide  and  side,  Cr.  394,  wyrdode  wordum 
wuldres  aldor  I  .  .  .  halgan  stefne,  And.  55,  and  par  pa  adelingas  /  wordum 
iveorfiodon  wuldres  aldor,  806.  From  the  Psalms  may  be  quoted,  ic  ealne 
dag  ecne  drihten  wordum  weordige  (laudabo),  LV,  9,  and  weorfiiad  his  naman 
(psallite  nomini  ejus),  CXXXIV,  3. 

130.  Geweorfiian  in  the  sense  oiadorare,  celebrare,  is  also  found  a  num- 
ber of  times,  as,  pat  ge  gewurdien  wuldres  aldor,  Ex.  270,  pu  gewurdod  eart  / 
on  heofonrice,  heah  casere,  L.  Prayer  III,  59,  as  also  Geweorfiie  wuldres 
ealdor  eall  deos  eorpe  (adoret),  Ps.  LXV,  3,  etc. 

131.  To  express  praise  the  verb  lofan  is  often  used,  though  the  noun 
lof  is  still  more  common.     We  cite,  pec  dag  and  niht,  .   .   .  /  lofigen  and 


52  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [52 

luftgen,  Az.  100,  de  pone  ahangnan  cyning  heriap  and  lofiad,  El.  453,  simi- 
larly L.  Prayer  III,  116.  We  note  further,  And  pec,  mihtig  god,  gastas 
lofige,  Dan.  373,  lofiad  lijfrean,  396;  mine  weleras  gefeod,  wynnum  lofiat), 
Ps.  LXX,  21,  renders  exultabunt  labia  mea. 

132.  The  noun  lof,  n.,  either  alone  or  modified,  is  used  with  verbs, 
and  the  following  examples  may  illustrate  various  terms  employed.  Hyre 
wees  Cristes  lof,  Jul.  233,  his  lof  rarest,  48,  he  dryhtnes  lof  /  reakte  and 
rcerde,  Gu.  130-31,  {peer  wees)  godes  lof  hafen,  Jul.  693,  poet  he  lof  godes  / 
hergan  on  heahpu,  Judg.  47-8,  lixende  lof  in  pa  longan  tid,  Wonders  49,  pin 
lof  ladaV,  L.  Prayer  III,  25,  pin  halige  lof,  32,  pin  lof  berad,  And.  1295, 
Lof  sceolde  he  drihtnes  wyrcean,  Gen.  256,  him  lof  singe,  Gu.  581,  snngon  sige- 
dryhtne  so'dfastlic  lof,  And.  877.  From  the  Psalms  we  note,  laces  loflustum 
bringan  (et  sacrificent  sacrificium  laudis),  CVI,  21,  ic  pe  laces  lof  lustum 
secge  (tibi  sacrificabo  hostiam  laudis),  CXV,  7,  pe  ponne  lustum  lofepanciad 
(hymnum  dicent),  LXIV,  14,  etc.,  etc. 

133.  Of  compounds  we  find  the  poetic  lof  ma  gen,  occurring  only  once, 
spedlice  eall  his  lofmagen  leode  gehyran  (omnes  laudes  ejus),  Ps.  CV,  2,  and 
once  also  the  poetic  lof  sum,  praiseworthy,  Gen.  468,  characterizing  the 
tree  of  life  in  Paradise. 

134.  Lof  sang  occurs  a  number  of  times,  as,  mag  on  lofsongum  lifes 
waldend  I  hlude  hergan  (said  of  singing  in  the  church),  Gifts  92;  the  saint 
is  buried  (with)  lofsongum,  Jul.  689.  We  note  also,  ponne  halige  men/ 
lifiendum  gode  lof  sang  dod,  Soul  69,  (ealle  hofan)  .  .  .  lofsonga  word,  Sat. 
155.  The  other  examples  are  found  in  the  Psalms.  Lustice  lof  sang  cwedan 
(laudem  dixi),  CXVIII,  164,  mid  lofsange  lade  (in  laude),  LXVIII,  31, 
mid  lofsangum  (in  hymnis),  XCIX,  3,  him  lofsangum  lustum  cwemdan  (et 
laudaverunt  laudem  ejus),  CV,  11. 

135.  Wuldrian,  to  glorify,  praise,  occurs  twice,  wuldriafi  /  apelne 
ordfruman  ealra  gesceafta,  Cr.  401,  and  Wuton  wuldrian  weorada  dryhten, 
Hymn  1.  Gewuldrian  is  found  in  pu  bist  gewuldrad  god  (glorificatur) ,  Ps. 
LXXXVIII,  6,  and  (Ic)  his  naman  swylce  gewuldrige  (glorificabo),  XC,  16. 

136.  Marsian  is  used  in  the  Psalms  a  few  times,  the  examples  giving 
the  connotation  it  has  in  each  case,  weorc  godes  wide  marsian  (annuntia- 
verunt),  LXIII,  8,  wuldor  pin  wide  marsian  (cantem),  LXX,  1 ,  pine  magen- 
strengtJu  marsien  wide  (narrabunt),  CXLIV,  6.  To  these  may  be  added  the 
only  further  example  found  in  the  poetry,  heofoncyninges  /  meahte  marsiad, 
Ph.  617.  Gemarsian  also  occurs  a  few  times.  Used  of  God's  hallowing 
Sunday  it  is  found  Dox.  26.  We  note  as  other  occurrences,  is  pin  nama 
halig,  I  wuldre  gewlitigad  ofer  werpeoda,  /  miltsum  gemarsod,  And.  544,  and 
swa  is  pin  apele  gecynd  /  miclum  gemarsod,  L.  Prayer  III,  44. 


53]  THE  SPIRITUAL  SIDE  OF  THE  CHURCH  53 

137.  Bletsian  and  gebletsian,  in  the  sense  of  Latin  benedicere,  not  con- 
fined to  man,  but  also  used  of  plants,  etc.,  is  quite  common.  We  note, 
bletsige  pec,  sodfast  cyning  Az.  77,  badon  bletsian  beam  Israela,  Dan.  359, 
ic  bletsige  .  .  .  /  lifes  leohtfruman,  Gu.  580,  we  blatsiad  bilewitne  fe.der, 
Hymn  8,  his  sodne  naman  bealde  bletsiad,  Ps.  XCV,  2,  we  lifigende  leofne 
dryhten  balde  bletsigad  {benedicimus  Domino),  CXIII,  25,  etc.  Of  gebletsian 
may  be  noted,  De  gebletsige  (animals,  things,  etc.)  bylywit  feeder ,  Dan.  363. 
Other  examples  could  easily  be  added. 

II.     The  Sacraments 

138.  Of  the  traditional  seven  sacraments  of  the  Mediaeval  Church 
only  Baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper  appear  formally  in  the  poetry,  the 
references  to  the  poenitentia  to  be  treated  in  chapter  X.6 

139.  The  Greek  fia-KTi^eiv,  (3a.TTL<T(xa,  was  taken  over  by  the  Latin  as 
baptizare,  baptisma,  baptismus.  In  OE.  this  word  was  not  borrowed  from 
the  Latin,  though  later  it  is  taken  over  and  ousts  the  native  terms.  OE. 
used  fullwian,  fulwi an,  fullian,  to  consecrate  fully,  composed  of  the  advejb 
full  and  the  Teut.  *ivihejan,  wlhjan,  to  consecrate,  from  *wlho,  appearing 
in  OS.  and  OHG.  as  wih,  Gothic  weihs,  holy.7  According  to  an  ancient 
custom  of  the  Church,  those  who  desired  to  enter  the  lists  of  the  catechu- 
mens and  were  not  fully  ready  to  receive  baptism,  were  marked  with  the 
sign  of  the  cross,  in  prose  expressed  by  crlstnian?  Later,  when  they  were 
considered  fully  prepared,  they  received  the  fullwlht,  the  full  consecration, 
or  baptism. 

140.  The  verb  fulwian  appears  only  once  in  poetry,  in  Christ's  mis- 
sionary command  to  his  disciples,  fulwiad  folc  under  roderum,  Cr.  484. 
The  form  gefulwian  we  also  have  once,  pa  wees  gefulwad  (Judas),  El.  1043. 

141.  More  often  the  noun  fullwlht,  mfn.,  is  used,  sometimes  in  the 
phrase  fullwihtes  bad,  as,  onfon  fromlice  fulhvihtes  bad  (Mermedonians), 
And.  1640,  ponne  br odor  pin  /  onfeng.  .  fulwihtes  bad  (Stephen,  called 
Cyriacus'  brother),  El.  490,  Judas  onfeng  /.  .fulwihtes  bad,  1033.  In  Sat. 
546  the  phrase  is  used  figuratively,  he  (halend)  his  swat  forlet  /  feallon  to 
foldan,  fulwihtes  bad,  referring  to  the  water  that  issued  from  the  Savior's 
side  when  the  soldier  thrust  in  his  spear.*  The  simple  term  occurs  And. 
1635  and  1643.  Fulwihte  onfon  we  have  Soul  87,  and  of  Constantine  it  is 
said  se  leodfruma  /  fulwihte  onfeng,  EL  192.    The  Christians  at  Rome  are 

6  But  note,  anne  gesette  /  .  ../...  bisceop  pam  leodiim  /  and  gehalgode  .  .  .  {Platan), 
And.  1647-50,  pat  he  gesette  on  sacerdhad  /  in  Jerusalem  Judas  pam  folce  /  to  bisceope  (ordinavit 
Judam  Episcopum  in  Jerosolyma),  El.  1054-6.  On  the  sacraments  for  OHG.  see  Raumer, 
p.  312  ff.,  for  ON.  Kahle,  I,  364  ff.,  II,  121  f. 

7  See  NED.  under  fulloiight. 
8MacG.,  p.  21,  note  2. 


54  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [54 

characterized  as  those  pa  purh  fulwihte  /  leer de  wceron,  El.  172,  while 
Maxims  9  it  is  said  an  is  fulwiht.  The  high  regard  for  baptism  and  the 
gifts  bestowed  through  it  are  mentioned  in  onfengon  (Mermedonian  youths) 
fulwihte  and  freofiuwcere,  /  wuldres  wedde  witum  aspedde,  /  mundbyrd 
meotudes,  And.  1630-32.  The  cleansing  power  of  baptism  is  sometimes 
referred  to,  as  in  the  passage  (wester)  cristnad  and  cloznsad  cwicra  manigo, 
Sal.  395,  also,  Judas  onfeng  /  .  .  .  fulwihtes  bad  /  and  geclcen-sod  weard, 
El.  1032-4. 

142.  Peculiar  is  John  the  Baptist's  reference  to  his  and  Christ's  activi- 
ties on  the  Jordan,  wit  unc  in  pare  human  bapodan  cetgeedere,  Har.  132, 
lines  133-7  telling  more  about  it,  oferwurpe  pu  mid  py  wcetre,  weoruda 
dryhten,  /  blipe  mode  ealle  burgwaran,  /  swylce  git  Johannis  in  Jordane  / 
mid  py  fullwihte  fcegre  onbryrdon  /  ealne  pisne  middangeard.  To  Christ's 
baptism  is  also  referred,  (John)  se  pe  fcegere  iu  /  mid  wcetere  oferwearp 
wuldres  cynebeam,  Men.  159.  The  compound  fulwihttiid  as  referring  to 
Christ's  baptism  we  find  in  Men.  11,  already  discussed  in  chapter  V. 

•143.  The  compound  julwihtpeaw,  rite  of  baptism,  occurs  once,  cyning 
sylfa  (Theoderic)  onfeng  /  fulluhtpeawum.  Met.  I,  33.  There  is  uncertainty 
about  the  word  fullwon,  f.,  the  gen.  pi.  of  which  is  encountered  Gen.  1951, 
forpon  his  lof  secgafi  /  .  .  .  /  fullwona  beam  (namely  Christians)."  The 
word  is  not  found  elsewhere,  and  it  is  likely  that  the  MS.  reading  is 
corrupt.9 

144.  The  sacrament  of  the  altar  or  the  Lord's  Supper  is  expressed  by 
husl,  husel,  n.,'  Goth,  hunsl  (Gr.  dvaia),  ON.  hunsl,  hUsl.  It  is  a  remarkable 
fact,  as  has  been  pointed  out  by  Kahle,10  that  this  spiritual  sacrifice  as 
conceived  by  the  Church,  an  idea  wholly  foreign  to  the  heathen  mind, 
should  be  expressed  by  an  old  Germanic  stem,  which  furthermore  we  find 
never  applied  to  the  sacrifices  of  the  heathen.  As  in  the  other  dialects,  the 
OE.  term  originally  meant  offering  or  sacrifice,  which  meaning  is  still  kept 
in  a  compound,  as  huslfatu  halegu,  Dan.  705  and  749,  reference  being  made 
to  the  sacrificial  vessels  of  Solomon's  temple. 

145.  The  word  husl  is  very  rare  in  the  poetry,  only  three  examples 
being  met  with.  We  have,  husl  (sceal)  halgum  men,  hcepum  synne,  Gn.  Ex. 
132,  Ahof  pa  his  honda  husle  gereorded  /  eat) mod  py  cepelan  gyfle,  Gu.  1274, 
and  ac  him  bid  lenge  husel,  Cr.  1685,  the  last  passage  referring  to  the  blessed 
in  Heaven.  However,  twice  we  have  a  reference  to  the  Lord's  Supper  in 
Soul,  though  the  term  husl  is  not  used,  and  ic  ofpyrsted  wees  /  godes  lic- 
homan,  gastes  drynces,  41,  and  similarly,  Fccstest  flu  on  fold  an  and  gefyldest 
me  I  godes  lichoman,  gastes  drynces,  145-6. 

9  Bibl.  II,  p.  405. 

10 1,  pp.  366-7.    See  also  Grimm,  DM.,  I,  p.  32. 


55]  THE  SPIRITUAL  SIDE  OF  THE  CHURCH  55 

146.  Three  compounds  are  met  with  in  the  poetry,  huslfcet,  already 
mentioned,  halig  huselbearn,  applied  to  Guthlac  531,  and  huselweras,  / 
cempan  gecorene,  Gu.  768,  a  name  for  the  faithful  that  enter  the  kingdom 
of  God  above.  The  last  two  words  are  poetical,  each  occurring  only  once 
in  OE.  literature. 

147.  Riddle  49  has  as  its  subject  the  firing,  1,  readan  goldes,  6,  and  it 
would  appear  that  the  solution  is  nothing  else  than  the  paten  or  communion 
plate.  In  Riddle  60  the  hring  gyldenne,.l,  which  speaks  of  the  Savior's 
wounds,  swa  pas  beages  benne  cwcedon,  12,  is  probably  the  chalice  or  com- 
munion cup.11 

III.     The  Scriptures 

148.  In  the  New  Testament  the  books  of  the  Old  Covenant  are  desig- 
nated as  17  ypa<pr)  or  at  ypcupaL,  i.e.,  the  writings  /car'  e&xw-  A  similar  use 
of  the  term  as  applied  to  the  Holy  Scriptures,  the  Latin  scriptura,  is  found 
in  OE.  poetry,12  where  the  sacred  writings  are  called  gewritu  or  fyrngewritu, 
n.  So  we  read,  Us  gewritu  secgad  (about  Adam's  age),  Gen.  1121,  similar 
statements  occurring  2563,  2611,  etc.  Furthermore,  swa  gewritu  secgap 
(about  Calvary),  El.  674,  it  being  said  regarding  Stephen,  sint  in  bocum 
his  I  wundor,  pa  he  worhte,  on  gewritum  cycled,  826,  though  here  apocryphal 
books  might  be  included.  We  note  also,  on  gewritum  find  ad ,  Ex.  519,  while 
it  is  asserted  regarding  the  Pater  Noster,  he  gewritu  leered,  Sal.  50.  Fyrnge- 
writu is  also  applied  a  number  of  times,  as,  py  Ices  toworpen  sien  /  frod 
fyrngewritu  and  pa  fcederlican  /  lare  forleten,  El.  430,  where  it  refers  to  the 
Old  Testament,  and  similarly,  ymb  fyrngewritu,  373,  where  the  author  has 
the  prophets  in  view.  In  Is  nu  fela  folca,  pcette  fyrngewritu  /  healdan  wille 
ac  .  .  .,  Instructions  67,  the  Holy  Scriptures  seem  to  be  in  the  mind  of  the 
speaker,  as  also  in  line  73.  It  is  peculiar  that  'holy'  never  modifies  the 
terms. 

149.  Sometimes  bee,  f.,  the  Latin  biblia,  serves  to  point  out  the  Bible. 
Qualifying  words  may  be  added  in  order  to  make  the  idea  intended  per- 
fectly clear,  should  the  context  fail  to  do  so.  Thus  we  have,  godcunde  bee, 
Gen.  2612,  on  godes  bocum,  El.  204,  290,  purh  halige  bee,  364,  670,  852,  etc., 
though  this  term  is  not  limited  in  its  application  to  the  Holy  Scriptures. 
Sometimes  bee  alone  suffices,  especially  where  the  context  admits  of  no 
other  interpretation.  Thus  we  have,  in  bocum,  Cr.  453,  Us  secgad  bee 
(about  Christ's  birth),  785,  and  pcet  me  hcelend  min  /  on  bocum  behead,  793. 
Other  examples  could  be  cited.  Wisboc  is  found  once,  on  pinum  wisbocum 
Ps.  CXXXVIII,  14,  rendering  in  libro  tuo. 

11  Compare  Tupper,  The  Riddles  of  the  Exeter  Book,  p.  179  f.,  197  f. 

12  For  OHG.  see  Raumer,  p.  319  ff.,  ON.  Kahle,  I,  p.  368  ff. 


56  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [56 

150.  A  term  frequently  used  to  designate  God's  word  is  a,  f.,  OS.  eo, 
OFris.  ewa  and  its  variant  forms,  OHG.  ewa,  etc.  However,  the  context 
must  point  to  this  interpretation  or  a  modifier  be  employed.  In  a  general 
sense  we  have  it  in  Sum  mag  godcunde  /  reccan  rihte  a,  Cr.  670-71,  and 
similarly,  par  hie  dryhtnes  <z  deman  sceoldon,  Ap.  10;  pe  his  a  healden,  Gu. 
26,  drihtnes  a,  Jul.  13.  Clear  references  to  the  Old  Testament  occur, 
purh  rihte  a  reccan  cud  on,  El.  281,  as  also,  we  Hebreisce  a  leornedon,  397. 
In  a  cud  on,  I  witgena  word,  El.  393-4,  specific  parts  of  the  Old  Testament 
are  referred  to,  as  also  \n  pa  de  Moyses  ce  /  reccan  cudon,  283.  JE  denoting 
the  Mosaic  Law  occurs  frequently  in  the  Psalms,  as,  mine  faste  ce  {legem 
meam),  LXXVII,  1,  ic  ce  pine  elne  heolde  {custodivi  legem  tuam),  CXVIII, 
55",  Brohte  him  bletsunge  se  de  him  beorhte  ce  sode  sette  {etenim  benedictionem 
dabat  legislator),  LXXXIII,  7,  Israhelum  ce  gesette  {legem  posuit  in  Israel), 
LXXVII,  6.  The  Ten  Commandments  or  the  Ten  Words  of  the  Law  are 
mentioned,  rihte  ce  /  getacnode  on  tyn  wordum.  And.  1511-12.  If  a  denotes 
the  New  Testament  or  Christ's  teachings,  the  fact  is  shown  either  by  the 
context  or  by  a  modifier,  such  as  ce  hcelendes,  El.  1062,  or  Cristes  ce,  Jul. 
411,  Cr.  1688.  For  further  examples  of  a  denoting  the  Scriptures  com- 
pare Sprachschatz. 

151.  A  few  compounds  of  ce  may  be  listed  here,  some  of  which,  how- 
ever, will  be  discussed  more  fully  later.  JEbebod,  Ps.  CIV,  40  {legem),  also 
CXVIII,  102  and  126._  Mboda,  poetic  and  found  only  once,  Gu.  909, 
referring  to  the  saint.  JEcraft,  poetic.  In  the  sense  of  religion  we  have  it 
El.  435,  and  as  denoting  knowledge  or  skill  in  the  Law,  Dan.  19.  JEcraftig, 
once  in  the  poetry;  said  of  Daniel,  Dan.  742.  JEfcest,  those  keeping  the 
Law,  the  pious;  not  infrequent.  JEfremmende,  the  pious,  religious;  poetic 
and  found  only  once,  Jul.  648.  JEfyllende,  pious,  religious;  poetic  and 
found  only  once,  Cr.  704.  JEgleaw,  in  the  religious  sense,  learned  in  the 
Law.  Said  of  Cyriacus  El.  805,  as  applied  to  Jews  summoned  by  Elene, 
eorlas  cecleawe,  El.  321.  In  a  more  general  sense,  as  knowing  about  the 
Bible,  the  apostles,  and  the  miracles  they  performed  we  find  aglaawe 
menn,  Ap.  24,  and  the  comparative  aglawra  /  mann,  And.  1483-4. 
JElarend,  poetic  and  found  only  once.  After  his  conversion  Paul  is  said 
to  be  the  best  alarendra,  El.  506.  JEriht,  code  of  Law  or  faith;  poetic  and 
occurring  only  twice.  Designating  the  Jewish  Law  we  have,  pa  pe  fyrnge- 
writu  I  purh  snyttro  craft  selest  cunnen,  /  ceriht  eowcr,  El.  375,  and  (Judas 
or  Cyriacus  may  reveal)  ceriht  from  ord  od  ende  ford,  590.  /Ewita,  wise  in 
the  Law,  counsellor;  poetic  and  found  only  once,  being  applied  to  Cyriacus' 
grandfather,  ealdum  cewitan,  El.  455. 

152.  No  discussion  of  the  prophets  is  necessary  here,  as  that  subject 
has  been  treated  in  chapter  II,  under  III. 


57]  THE  SPIRITUAL  SIDE  OF  THE  CHURCH  57 

153.  In  the  metrical  version  of  the  Psalms,  which  is  generally  speaking 
a  faithful  rendering  of  the  Latin  Vulgate,  with  the  exception  of  occasional 
elaborations  and  personal  touches,  a  considerable  number  of  terms  not  met 
with  in  the  other  poetry  are  naturally  found.  Among  them  we  have 
gewitnes,  used  in  a  general  sense  in  rendering  the  Latin  testimonium,  as, 
pin  gewitnys  (testimonia  tua),  CXVIII,  24,  similarly,  pine  gewitnysse 
(mandata  tua),  45,  etc.  But  sometimes  we  have  the  term  in  the  sense  of 
testimonium,  the  covenant  entered  into,  the  Law.  Thus,  Ne  heoldan  hi 
halgan  drihtnes  gewitnesse  (testamentum  Dei),  LXXVII,  12,  as  also,  his 
gewitnesse  (mem or  erit  .   .   .  testamenti  sui),  CX,  4. 

154.  The  OE.  rendering  of  the  Latin  psalmus  is  sealm,  m.,  the  learned 
psealm  not  being  found  in  the  poetry.  We  have,  pat  ic  gode  swylce  sealmas 
singe  (psalmum  dicam),  LVI,  9,  similarly  11;  mid  sealmum  (psalmum  dicite), 
LXV,  1,  Singa'd  soflum  gode  sealmas  (psalmum  dicite),  LXVII,  4,  sealmas 
singan  (psallam),  CVII,  3,  similarly  CXLV,  1;  singa'd  him  sealmas  (bonus 
est  psalmus),  CXLVI,  1,  sealmas  (in  psalmis  jubilemus  ei),  XCIV.  2. 

155.  Of  compounds  with  sealm  the  poetic  sealmjcet  occurs  once  only, 
pe  on  sealmfatum  singe  be  hearpan,  LXX,  20,  rendering  the  Latin  in  vasis 
psalmi.  The  Latin  psalterium  is  directly  taken  over,  occurring  four  times 
in  the  form  on  psalterio,  XCI,  3,  CVII,  2,  CXLIII,  10,  and  CXLIX,  3. 
Once  we  find  wynps alter ium,  LVI,  10,  where  the  Latin  has  only  psalterium. 

156.  The  verb  salletan,  the  Latin  psallere,  occurs  only  once  in  the 
Psalms,  Singa'd  him  swylce  and  salletad  (cantate  ei,  et  psallite  ei),  CIV,  2. 

157.  Twice  ymen,  m.,  the  Latin  hymnus,  is  found.  Nu  mine  weleras  de 
wordum  belcettad  ymnas  elne  (eructabunt  labia  mea  hymnum),  Ps.  CXVIII, 
171,  and  Singa'd  us  ymnum  (hymnum  cantate),  CXXXVI,  4. 

158.  Of  the  books  of  the  New  Testament  the  gospels  demand  atten- 
tion. In  OE.  the  term  for  the  story  of  Christ  is  godspell,  godspel,  n.  It  is 
assumed  that  the  original  form  of  the  word  was  godspel,  the  good  or  glad 
tidings,  a  rendering  of  the  Latin  bona  adnuntiatio  or  bonus  nuntius,  which 
was  in  current  use  as  an  explanation  of  the  etymological  sense  of  evan- 
gelium,  Gr.  evayyekiov.  In  the  compound  word  the  regular  phonetic  law 
would  shorten  god,  but  it  seems  that  already  at  an  early  time  the  first 
part  of  the  compound  was  confused  with  god,  God,  and  the  word  came  to 
be  used  in  the  sense  of  divine  story  or  message.  From  OE.  the  term  passed 
into  other  Germanic  languages,  appearing  in  OS.  as  godspell,  OHG.  gotspell, 
ON.  gud-  or  god-spiall,  in  each  case  the  first  element  being  identified  with 
God.13 

13  Article  gospel  in  NED.  The  etymology  given  here  seems  to  be  generally  accepted  now. 
For  a  different  view  see  Bright,  Mod.  L.  Notes,  TV,  208-10,  V,  90-91,  who  still  maintains  that 
standpoint.    Compare  reply  of  Logeman,  VIII,  89-93. 


58 


INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY 


[58 


159.  In  OE.  poetry  godspel  is  encountered  only  five  times.  It  is  not 
impossible  that  in  Sal.  A,  65,  fiurh  gastes  gife  godspel  secgan,  the  word  has 
kept  its  original  meaning  of  good  tidings,  if  we  assume  that  this  interpreta- 
tion suggested  by  the  context  is  further  strengthened  by  the  fact  that 
MS.  B  has  the  reading  godspellian.  In  the  other  cases  we  have  clearly  an 
indication  of  the  Gospel,  as,  dat  hie  for  pam  casere  cyfian  moston  /  godspelles 
gife,  El.  176,  the  story  of  Christ  following  almost  immediately  as  an 
explanation  of  the  term.  The  same  interpretation  is  demanded  in  purh 
gastes  giefe  godspel  bodian,  Gu.  1088.  Matthew  seems  to  be  especially 
prominent  in  connection  with  the  Gospel,  he  being  referred  to  as  pegn 
unforcud  /  godspelles  gleaw,  Men.  171.  In  And.  11-13  his  work  in  reducing 
the  story  of  Christ  to  writing  is  definitely  pointed  out,  Wees  hira  Matheus' 
sum,  I  se  mid  Judeum  ongan  godspell  cerest  /  wordum  wriian  wundorcrafte. 

160.  The  verb  godspellian,  godspellan  occurs  a  few  times.  As  already 
pointed  out,  we  have  godspellian  Sal.  B,  65.  In  swa  he  (Daniel)  ofstlice 
godspellode  /  metodes  mihtum  for  mancynne,  Dan.  658,  the  word  seems  to 
be  used  in  the  sense  of  preaching.  In  the  meaning  of  making  known  the 
glad  tidings,  though  not  in  the  New  Testament  sense,  it  is  employed  Ps. 
LXVII,  12,  God  gifed  gleaw  word  godspellendum  (Dominus  dabit  verbum 
evangelizantibus) . 

161.  Of  other  terms  denoting  God's  Word  or  pointing  out  specific  com- 
mandments may  be  mentioned  bod,  bebod,  and  gebod,  n.,  which  are  used  in 
different  senses,  in  each  case  the  context  or  modifiers  supplying  the  specific 
meaning.  Bod  appears  for  instance  L.  Prayer  III,  109.  Ac  min  bibod 
brace,  Cr.  1393,  refers  to  Adam  and  Eve  in  Paradise,  das  hehstan  gebod, 
Dox.  29,  mentions  the  supposed  commandment  regarding  the  observance 
of  Sunday.  Halendes  bebod  is  mentioned  And.  735,  while  in  other  passages 
we  have  the  commandment  of  the  king  or  the  heavenly  king,  God.  The 
compound  bodscipe  occurs  Gen.  783,  and  gebodscipe  430.  A  few  examples 
from  the  Psalms  may  follow,  godes  bebodu  georne  heoldan  (testamentum 
Dei),  LXXVII,  9,  bebodu  {legem),  LXXXVIII,  27,  bebodu  (mandata),  28, 
and  halige  bebodu  (mandata  tua),  CXVIII,  63,  etc.,  gebod  (mandata),  87. 

162.  War,  f.,  covenant,  is  used  a  number  of  times,  as,  penden  / poet 
folc  mid  him  hiera  feeder  weere  /  healdan  woldon,  Dan.  10,  wille  (God)  him 
sode  to  I  modes  ware  mine  gelatan,  Gen.  2366,  ware  gemyndig,  /  .  .  .  da 
him  god  sealde,  2372. 

163.  Such  terms  as  lar,  godes  word,  dom,  etc.,  etc.,  used  either  singly 
or  with  modifiers,  may  also  denote  the  whole  or  parts  of  the  Scriptures, 
but  they  do  not  call  for  any  detailed  treatment  here. 


59]  THE  DEITY  59 


CHAPTER  VII 
THE  DEITY 

164.  The  Germanic  tribes  believed  in  polytheism,  in  a  plurality  of 
gods,  whose  identity  and  number  seem  to  be  shifting,  and  who  were 
governed  by  the  inexorable  Wyrd.1  The  idea  of  one  supreme  and  all- 
powerful  God  in  the  Christian  sense  of  the  term  was  entirely  foreign  to 
them,  and  naturally  some  time  elapsed  before  they  were  able  to  bring 
their  former  views  into  harmony  with  the  Christian  doctrine.  For  a  long 
time  their  notions  regarding  certain  phases  were  bound  to  be  vague,  and 
we  find  for  instance  in  OE.  poems  assertions  regarding  the  persons  of  the 
Trinity  not  consonant  with  the  official  theological  views  accepted  and 
decreed  by  the  councils,  but  not  at  all  surprising  when  viewed  in  the  light 
of  prevailing  circumstances. 

I.     Wyrd 

165.  Since  the  term  wyrd  is  sometimes  closely  connected  with  God, 
a  brief  discussion  of  it  as  far  as  it  pertains  to  our  subject  would  seem  to  be 
in  order  at  this  point.2  OE.  wyrd  by  regular  changes  from  Germanic 
*wurdiz  goes  back  to  the  common  Germ,  stem  *werthan,  the  noun  occurring 
as  wurd  in  OS.,  wurt  in  OHG.,  and  urdr  in  ON.3  The  original  meaning  of 
OE.  wyrd  (fact,  happening;  Gummere,  Germanic  Origins,  p.  Ill,  "that 
which  is  accomplished")  is  common  in  poetry  as  well  as  in  prose,  occurring 
for  instance  in  such  passages  as  pa  seo  wyrd  geweard,  pat  pat  wif  geseah  / 
for  Abrahame  Ismael  plegan,  Gen.  2777,  was  pest  mare  ivyrd  /  (Christ's 
birth)  f oleum  gefrage,  Men.  53,  he  ne  leagfela  /  wyrda  ne  worda,  Beow.  3030. 

166.  However,  more  often  wyrd  has  a  meaning  analogous  to  the  Latin 
fatum,  fate  or  destiny,  at  times  practically  personified.  At  least  one 
passage,4  Me  pat  wyrd  gewaf,  Rim.  70,  seems  to  indicate  the  mythological 
conception  of  wyrd  as  weaving  man's  destiny,  while  in  ON.  the  idea  of 

1  See  Grimm,  D.M.,  I,  p.  81  ff.,  Golther,  Handbuch,  p.  192  ff.,  502  ff. 

2  Compare  Grimm,  D.M.,  I,  p.  335  ff..  Golther,  Handbuch,  104  f.,  Gummere,  Germanic 
Origins,  p.  236,  371  f.,  Klaeber,  Anglia,  XXXVI,  p.  171  f.,  174  f. 

3  Skeat,  Etymological  Dictionary,  under  weird. 

4  In  Rid.  36,  9-10,  we  read,  Wyrmas  mec  ne  awcefan  wyrda  crceftum,  /  pape  geolo  godwebb 
geatwum  fr<ztwaH),  which  is  claimed  to  '  take  us  into  the  heart  of  ancient  heathendom'  (Brooke, 
p.  126).  But  with  Tupper,  Riddles  of  the  Exeter  Book,  p.  152,  note.,  we  agree  that  wyrda 
crajtum  has  lost  its  old  force  and  means  nothing  more  than  'durch  Schicksalsschlage, '  as 
Grein's  Dichtungen  renders  it,  the  lines  being  a  fairly  accurate  translation  of  Aldhelm's  Latin. 
Seo  prag  cyme~d  /  wefen  wyrdstafum,  Gu.  1325,  also  seems  to  have  a  weakened  force. 


60  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [60 

Norns,  corresponding  to  the  Greek  /lotpcu  and  the  Latin  parcae,  distinctly 
appears  in  Voluspa,5 

18  (B.  19)  Ask  ueit  ek  standa,  /  heitir  Yggdrasill  /  .  .  . 

19  (B.  20)  paban  koma  meyiar  /  margs  uitandi  / 

briar  or  beim  sal,  /  er  und  bolli  stendr.  / 
Urb  heto  eina,  /  abra  Uerbandi, — / 
skaro  a  skibi, — /  Skuld  ena  bribio.  / 

20  pjer  lQg  logbo,  /  bser  lif  kuro  / 
alda  bornom,  /  0rlog  seggia. 

Even  though  Ur'Sr  in  ON.  literature  is  the  predominating  figure,  from  the 
passage  quoted  it  is  readily  seen  that  Ur'Sr,  Uerpandi,  and  Skuld  as  Past, 
Present,  and  Future  have  a  function  analogous  to  that  of  the  ndlpai  and 
parcae  in  Homer  and  Isidor,6  even  if  the  question  of  classical  influence 
is  waived. 

167.  Often,  though  not  always,  wyrd  is  the  blindly  hostile  and  inex- 
orable power  sweeping  away  man's  joys  and  pleasures,  intolerant  even  of 
his  dreary  existence.  The  poet  of  the  Ruined  Burg  contemplates  in  a 
melancholy  mood  the  hall  joys  op  pat  pat  onwende  wyrd  seo  swipe,  line  25. 
Other  pictures  are  no  less  gloomy,  Earm  hip  se  sceal  ana  lifgan,  /  wineleas 
wunian  hafap  him  wyrd  geteod,  Gn.  Ex.  174,  and  hio  Wyrd  forsweop  /  on 
Grendles  gryre,  Beow.  477.  In  this  poem  wyrd  is  generally  looked  upon  as 
the  goddess  of  death,  an  idea  which  also  appears  in  the  OS.  Heliand,  Thiu 
wurd  is  at  hendum,  4621,  when  compared  with  line  2990,  nu  is  iru  dot)  at 
hendi,7  etc.  The  same  notion  is  not  foreign  to  other  OE.  poems,  a  lingering 
trace  of  such  function  being  found  for  instance  Gu.  1030,  where  at  the 
death  of  the  saint  it  is  remarked,  Wyrd  ne  meahte  /  in  fa  gum  leng  feorg 
gehealdan,  /  deore  fratwe,  ponne  him  gedemed  was,  while  wyrd  seo  mare, 
Wand.  100,  has  taken  away  the  earls. 

168.  With  the  advent  of  Christianity  the  notion  of  wyrd  as  the  hostile 
force  receives  a  further  development.  So  in  heo  wop  weced,  heo  wean 
hladefi,  /  heo  gast  scyfi,  heo  ger  byred,  Sal.  436  ff.,  and  especially,  Ac  hwat 
wited  us  wyrd  seo  swide,  /  eallra  fyrena  fruma,  fahdo  modor,  /  weana  wyrt- 
wela,  wo  pes  heafod,  /  frumscylda  gehwas  fader  and  modor,  /  deaZes  dohter? 
442  ff .  Met.  IV,  34-40  the  hostile  force  even  helps  in  persecuting  the  saints. 

6  Samundar  Edda,  Detter  &  Heinzel,  Leipzig,  1903. 

6  Grimm,  DM.,  I,  p.  335  ff. 

7  Heliand,  M.  Heyne,  4th  edition,  Paderborn,  1905.  See  Grimm,  D.M.,  I,  p.  336,  regard- 
ing the  discussion  of  wyrd.  Vilmar,  Deutsche  Altertumer,  2nd  edition,  p.  13,  may  also  be 
compared. 


61]  THE  DEITY  61 

In  the  passage  hie  seo  Wyrd  beswac,  / forleolc  and  fori cerde,  And.  613-14, 
especially  when  compared  with  hie  for  cefstum  inwit  syredon  /  purh  deopne 
gedwolan  deojies  larum,  610-11,  wyrd  assumes  functions  of  the  devil  in 
instigating  the  condemnation  of  Christ.  And  in  the  passages  quoted  from 
Salomon  and  Saturn  there  is  hardly  any  doubt  that  wyrd  is  identified  with 
the  fallen  angel,  who  is  the  bringer  of  evil  and  misery.8  This  idea  was  not 
foreign  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  mind,  and  the  homilists  exerted  all  their 
influence  to  combat  such  a  belief. a 

169.  Excepting  such  negative  statements  as  ne  mceg  werig  mod  wyrde 
widstondan,  Wand.  15,  and  the  variously  interpreted  passage  Beow. 
1056-7,  man  seems  to  be  helpless  against  the  decrees  of  blind  fate.  Gced  a 
wyrd  swa  hio  seel!  Beow.  455,  wyrd  bid  ful  arced!  Wand.  5,  mon  him  sylf  ne 
mceg  I  wyrd  onwendan,  Prayer  IV,  117,  pcet  ic  gewcegan  ne  mceg  wyrd  under 
heofonum,  Judg.  115,  testify  to  the  prevalent  belief  of  wyrd  as  the  inex- 
orable. 

170.  Entirely  different  is  God's  position  in  regard  to  the  once  all-ruling 
power,  though  even  here  occur  peculiar  statements.  The  belief  in  fatalism 
had  a  strong  hold  on  the  Germanic  character  and  even  after  the  conversion 
to  Christianity  exerted  an  influence  by  no  means  negligible.  During 
heathen  times  Wyrd  had  occupied  a  unique  position  inasmuch  as  it  operated 
outside  the  sphere  of  the  gods,  and,  in  ultimately  controlling  all  destiny, 
even  stood  above  them.  With  the  conversion  to  Christianity  the  good 
God  of  Christianity  might  easily  supplant  the  regnator  omnium  deus 
(Tacitus,  Germania,  ch.  49)  who  had  until  then  been  the  provider  and 
distributer  of  bountiful  gifts.10  Not  so  easy  was  the  subordination  of  a 
hostile  and  uncontrollable  force  under  the  omnipotence  of  the  Christian 
God,  and  this  transitional  stage  may  perhaps  account  for  an  occasional 
compromising  statement.  We  read,  prymmas  syndan  Cristes  mycele,  / 
wyrd  bid  swidost,  Gn.  Cot.  4-5,  and  Wyrd  bip  swidre,  /  meotud  meahtigra 
ponne  cenges  monnes  gehygd,  Seaf.  115-16.  It  is  not  at  all  improbable  that 
in  the  last  example,  as  also  in  ac  unc  sceal  weordan  cet  wealle,  swa  unc  wyrd 
geteod,  I  metod  manna  gehwees,  Beow.  2526-7,11  the  term  metod  must  be 
taken  as  synonymous  with  wyrd,  an  interpretation  which  seems  to  be 
suggested  by  connotations  which  this  word  in  its  simple  form  as  well  as  in 

8  Abbetmeyer,  Poetical  Motives,  p.  6,  puts  it,  "Sal.  442  ff.  is  clearly  a  Christian  passage, 
in  which  Wyrd  is  discredited  by  being  identified  with  Satan. " 

9  Bouterweck,  Cadmon's  des  Angelsachsen  Biblische  Dicktungen,  p.  LXIV;  also  LXDC  f., 
"Darum  eifern  die  angelsachsischen  Kirchenvater  gegen  den  Aberglauben  einer  Vyrd,  eines 
Geschickes,  dass  etwas  Anderes  sei  als  der  allmachtige  Gott. " 

10  Ehrismann,  Zum  Germanischen  Friihchristenhim,  p.  237-8. 

11  In  the  Beowulf  of  Heyne-Schuecking,  Paderborn,  1913,  metod  in  this  line  is  glossed  as 
latum  in  the  vocabulary,    i 


62  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [62 

combinations  may  originally  have  had.12  Without  ascribing  any  undue 
importance  to  the  at  least  notable  statement  God  us  ece  hip:  / ne  wendad  hine 
wyrda,  Gn.  Ex.  9,  God  controls  wyrd,  he  is  wyrda  wealdend,  Ex.  432,  El.  80, 
And.  1056,  Prayer  IV,  43,  though  one  might  argue  that  wyrda  has  here 
the  weakened  force  of  events.13  But  such  statements  as  the  following 
leave  little  doubt  as  to  God's  superior  power,  nefne  him  witig  god  wyrd 
forstode,14  Beow.  1056,  especially  Hwi  fiu  ece  god  afre  wolde,  /pat  sio  Wyrd 
on  gewill  wendan  sceolde,  Met.  IV,  35,  and  Gif  flu  nu,  zvaldend,  ne  wilt 
Wyrde  steoran,  /  ac  on  selfwille  sigan  latest,  49. 

171.  A  further  development  may  perhaps  be  assumed  in  passages 
where  wyrd  takes  on  a  meaning  almost  identical  with  God,  such  as,  ofipat 
Wyrd  gescraf,  /pat  pe  Deodrice  pegnas  and  eorlas  /  her  an  sceoldon,  Met.  I, 
29,  when  held  together  with  denden  god  wolde,  pat  he  Gotena  geweald  /  agan 
moste,  38-9,  while  regarding  the  conversion  of  Judas,  the  discoverer  of  the 
cross,  we  hear,  hum  Wyrd  gescreaf,  /pat  he  swa  geleaful  and  swa  leof  gode  / 
in  worldrice  weorfian  sceolde,  /  Criste  gecweme,  El.  1046.  One  is  tempted 
to  identify  the  word  with  foreordination  or  predestination.15  Such  an 
interpretation  is  placed  upon  wyrd  by  OE.  homilists.16  In  glosses  forewyr d 
has  the  sense  of  predestination. 

II.     The  Term  God 

172.  The  OE.  term  for  God  is  god,  masculine  in  the  singular,  but  with 
masculine  and  neuter  forms  in  the  plural.  Other  Germanic  dialects  use 
a  word  from  the  same  stem,  OFris.  and  OS.  god,  m.,  OHG.  got,  m.,  ON.  god, 
gud,  the  singular  in  ON.  being  both  masculine  and  neuter,  while  the  plural 
is  neuter.  The  Gothic  singular  gup,  a  neuter  form,  is  used  as  a  masculine, 
while  in  the  plural  the  neuter  gtida  appears.  The  Goth,  and  ON.  words 
are  declined  as  neuters,  but  the  masculine  concord  is  established,  probably 
due  to  Christian  influence.  The  OTeut.  type  would  be  therefore  *gudom, 
n.,  which  seems  to  go  back,  though  the  ulterior  etymology  is  disputed,  to 

12  Compare  the  discussion  of  metod,  184,  note  1. 

13  See  Kent,  Teutonic  Antiquities,  p.  3,  also  Rankin,  Kennings,  VIII,  p.  414,  note  37. 

14  Sedgefield  {Beowulf,  Manchester,  1910,  p.  163),  agreeing  with  Ettmueller,  would  take 
wyrd  as  nom.  sing,  in  opposition  with  god.  He  objects  to  the  usual  construction  of  wyrd  as 
object  of  forstode  on  the  ground  that  man's  destiny  could  not  be  hindered.  But  his  rendering 
of  forstode  as  help,  defend,  is  not  happy  from  the  grammatical  standpoint,  since  then  we 
should  expect  hie,  not  him,  as  object,  while  his  objection  to  the  common  interpretation  on 
theological  grounds  loses  its  force  because  it  is  not  based  on  all  the  evidence  available,  as  will 
be  seen  from  the  examples  we  have  quoted.  Compare  note  to  line  1056,  p.  54  of  Beowulf, 
Wyatt  and  Chambers,  Cambridge,  1914 

16  See  also  Kent,  Teutonic  Antiquities,  p.  3. 

16  Compare  Bouterweck,  Ccedmon's  des  Angelsachsen  Biblische  Dichtungen,  p.  LXX  ff. 


63]  THE  DEITY  63 

Indo-European  *ghutom,  the  neuter  of  a  past  participle,  meaning  either 
what  is  invoked  or  what  is  worshipped  by  sacrifice.17 

173.  The  original  meaning  of  god  in  Teutonic  was  therefore  probably 
rather  numen  than  deus.  In  OE.  it  is  used  practically  exclusively  in  the 
latter  sense,  with  the  modification,  of  course,  that  god  may  render  also 
dominus,  etc.  As  in  OE.  poetry  god  as  a  designation  of  the  Christian 
Deity  is  very  frequent  and  as  numerous  examples  will  appear  in  the  sub- 
sequent discussion,  illustrations  of  this  use  are  superfluous  here.  The 
singular  is  also  applied  to  heathen  gods,  e.g.,  gif  pu  to  sozmran  gode  /  purh 
deofolgield  dcede  bipencest,  Jul.  52.  Wohgod,  false  god,  we  have  in  him 
wohgodu  worhtan  (sculptilibus),  Ps.  LXXVII,  58.  The  masculine  plural, 
confined  to  the  Christian  God,  is  naturally  seldom  used;  a  good  illustration 
is  found  in  Creed,  where,  having  enumerated  the  persons  of  the  Godhead, 
the  poet  continues,  44,  ne  synd  pcet  preo  godas  priwa  genemned,  /  ac  is  an 
god,  se  fie  ealle  hafafi  /  pa  pry  naman  pinga  gerynum.  The  neuter  plural 
godu  is  much  more  common.  The  Christian  Deity  as  conceived  by  heathen 
is  referred  to,  and  pu  fremdu  godu  forfi  bigongest,  Jul.  121.  As  applied  to 
heathen  gods  we  note,  Ic  (Juliana's  father)  pozt  geswerge  purh  sod  godu, 
Jul.  80,  pa  du  goda  ussa  gilp  gehnozgdest,  And.  1319,  him  was  wuldres 
dream,  /  lifwela  leofra  ponne  pees  leasan  godu,  Ap.  49.  A  few  examples  from 
the  Psalms  may  follow,  Sindon  ealle  hcepenu  godu  hildedeoful  (omnes  dii 
gentium  daemonia),  XCV,  5,  Nis  pe  goda  oznig  on  gumrice  ahwazr  efle  gelic 
{non  est  similis  tut  in  diis  Domine),  LXXXV,  7.  Said  of  men  we  have, 
Ge  synd  uppe  godu  ealle  uphea  and  cedele  beam  (Dii  estis,  et  filii  excelsi 
omnes),  LXXXI,  6.  In  the  last  example  we  notice  that  the  neuter  plural 
is  also  applied  to  men,  even  though  they  are  looked  upon  as  the  repre- 
sentatives of  God. 

174.  A  feminine  gyden,  goddess,  also  appears,  but  in  the  poetry  it  is 
met  with  only  once,  Met.  XXVI,  53,  where  it  serves  as  a  designation 
of  Circe. 

175.  Os,  m.,  the  ON.  qss,  is  found  once  in  the  poetry,  gif  hit  wcere  esa 
gescot,  Charm  II,  23. 

III.     The  Trinity 

176.  Though  there  is  confusion  regarding  the  persons  of  the  Trinity, 
and  the  line  is  not  always  as  sharply  drawn  as  the  trinitarian  dogma  of 
the  Church  would  demand,  the  Anglo-Saxon  poets  hold  the  orthodox 
Athanasian   view   of   the   mystery.     The   Latin   trinitas    (Gr.    rptas)    is 

17  See  NED.  For  literature  on  the  subject  consult  Falk-Torp,  Norw.-Dan.  Etymolpgi- 
sches  Worterbuch,  under  Gud. 


64  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [64 

expressed  in  OE.  by  prines,prynes,  OHG.  having  thrinissi,  ON.  prenneng.1* 
The  term  is  comparatively  rare  in  the  poetry,  occurring  only  eight  times, 
though  we  have  not  seldom  a  juxtaposition  of  the  three  persons  of  the 
Godhead,  even  when  the  formal  expression  of  the  Trinity  is  lacking.  So  for 
instance  Charm  VIII,  10-12,  ac  gehale  me  celmihtig  and  sunu  and  frofre- 
gcBst,  /  ealles  wuldres  wyrdig  dryhten,  /  swa  swa  ic  gehyrde  heofna  scyppende. 

177.  As  examples  of  prines  we  note,  Eala!  seo  wlitige  weordmynda 
full  J  heah  and  halig  heofoncund  prynes,  /  brade  geblissad  geond  bryten- 
wongas,  Cr.  379,  which  all  should  praise,  nu  us  halend  god  /  warfast  ornvrah, 
pat  we  hine  witan  motanl  383-4,  as  also,  Wuldor  pas  age  /  prynysse  prym, 
pone  butan  endel  599.  The  belief  in  the  Trinity  is  voiced  by  Guthlac, 
fordon  ic  getrywe  in  pone  torhtestan  /  prynesse  prym,  se  gepeahtingum  / 
hafad  in  hondum  keafon  and  eordan,  617-19.  Several  times  Christ  is  men- 
tioned in  connection  with  the  Trinity  in  such  a  manner  as  almost  to  incline 
the  reader  to  the  belief  that  Christ  embraces  the  three  persons  of  the  God- 
head. A  slight  tendency  toward  it  may  perhaps  be  detected  El.  177,  hu  se 
gasta  helm  /  in  prynesse  prymme  geweordad  /  acenned  weard.  More  pro- 
nounced is  the  passage  in  Hymn,  for  having  spoken  of  Christ  in  lines  37-9 
as  flu  eart  ana  ace  dryhten  /  and  3n  ana  bist  eallra  dema,  /.  .  Crist  nergend, 
the  author  continues,  40,  fordan  flu  on  "Srymme  ricsast  and  on  drinesse  / 
and  on  annesse  ealles  waldend,  /  hiofena  heahcyninc,  haliges  gastes  /  fegere 
gefelled  in  fader  wuldre.  This  would  not  be  so  very  surprising  in  view  of 
the  fact,  as  will  appear  later,  that  Christ  is  sometimes  identified  with  both 
the  Father  and  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  that  it  is  said  of  him  ])u  eart  sunu  and 
fader  /  ana  agper,  L.  Prayer  III,  42-3.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  a 
change  in  the  traditional  order  of  the  Trinity  Jud.  83-4,  Ic  tie,  frymda  god 
and  fr  of  re  gast,  /  beam  alwaldan,  biddan  wille  (firynesse  firym,  86).  The 
same  order  is  followed  in  Jul.  724-7,  fader  froj 're  gast,  /  .  .  .  /  and  se  deora 
sunu,  I ponne  seo  prynis  prymsittende  /  in  annesse  (serif ed).  The  tradi- 
tional order  is,  however,  observed  in  And.  1684-5,  par(m  Heaven)  fader  and 
sunu  and  fr  of  re  gast'/  in  prinnesse  prymme  wealded. 

178.  The  unity  in  the  Trinity  was  not  lost  sight  of,  as  a  number  of 
passages  tend  to  show.  In  the  last  quotation  of  176,  Charm  VIII, 
10-12,  the  unity  may  be  indicated  by  the  singular  number  of  the  appella- 
tions evidently  bestowed  upon  all  the  three  persons.  In  And.  1685  we 
have  the  singular  wealded,  although  the  subject  is  composed  of  three  per- 
sons. Formally  the  unity  is  expressed  by  annes  (L.  unitas,  Gr.  novorrjs), 
OHG.  einnissi,  ON.  eineng.  The  OE.  term  is  only  twice  found  in  the 
poetry,  (Christ  reigns  not  only  on  drinesse,  40,  but  also)  on  annesse,  Hymn 
41,  and  ponne  seo  prynis  prymsittende  /  in  annesse  {scrifed),  Jul.  727.      The 

18  For  OHG.  compare  Raumer,  p.  347  ff.,  ON.  Kahle,  I,  pp.  380-81. 


65]  THE  DEITY  65 

three  persons  are  contained  in  the  meotud  (721),  the  heofona  helm  (722), 
and  the  meahta  waldend  (723)  implored  by  Cynewulf.  The  resolute  maiden 
Judith  ongan  "da  swegles  weard  /  be  naman  nemnan,  nergend  ealra  /  woruld- 
buendra,  Jud.  80-82,  followed  by  the  invocation  to  Father,  Spirit,  and  Son. 
The  author  of  the  Creed  enters  into  a  discussion  of  the  problem  of  unity 
and  trinity  in  the  passage  quoted  before  in  another  connection.  Having 
referred  to  the  Spirit,  the  Father,  and  the  Son,  he  continues,  in  order  to 
prevent  an  interpretation  that  might  be  made,  ne  synd  pcet  preo  godas  priwa 
genemned,  /  ac  is  an  god,  se  fie  ealle  hafad  /  pa  pry  naman  pinga  gerynum, 
44-6.  All  of  which  goes  to  show  that  the  poet  tried  to  keep  within  the 
dogma  as  drawn  up  by  the  councils  of  the  Church,  though  attempting  a 
rational  explanation  of  the  mystery. 

IV.     The  Godhead  and  God  the  Father 

179.  Under  this  caption  we  shall  treat  certain  names  which  are  applied 
to  the  Godhead,  and  the  Father,  or  the  first  person  of  the  Trinity,  though 
one  cannot  always  be  sure  as  to  who  is  meant,  in  a  considerable  number 
of  cases  it  being  impossible  to  distinguish  clearly  the  three  persons  of  the 
Godhead.  No  attempt  has  been  made  to  make  the  list  of  the  extremely 
large  number19  of  names  and  kennings  complete,  as  the  works  of  Bode  and 
Rankin,20  to  which  we  refer  the  reader,  are  sufficiently  comprehensive, 
though  they  hardly  make  any  distinction  between  the  three  persons.  We 
merely  give  from  our  full  collections  the  more  important  of  the  designations. 
But  enough  material  will  appear  to  illustrate  by  specific  cases  the  wealth 
and  variety  of  names  at  the  disposal  of  the  OE.  poets.  Though  having 
originally  a  specific  and  definite  connotation,  there  can  be  little  doubt 
that  very  often  the  names  were  not  pregnant  with  meaning  to  the  author, 
who  not  seldom  was  guided  in  his  choice  of  an  appellation  by  the  exigencies 
of  alliteration,  and  similar  considerations.21 

180.  The  term  god  appears  extremely  often  as  a  designation  of  the 
Godhead,  and  of  the  first  person.  The  wealth  and  variety  will  sufficiently 
appear  from  the  examples  given.  An  god  is  ealra  gesceafta,  /  frea  mon- 
cynnes,  feeder  and  scippend,  Met.  XVII,  8-9,  frymda  god,  El.  502,  Jud.  83, 
similarly  El.  345,  Gu.  792;  weornda  god,  Gu.  366,  similarly  El.  1149,  Cr. 
347,  etc. ;  weorodanes  god,  Fates  93,  mcegena  god,  El.  809,  mcegna  gode,  Jul. 

19  Bode,  Kenningar,  p.  72,  remarks:  "Sie  (namely  the  Anglo-Saxons)  umschreiben  den 
himmlischen  Vater  mit  mehr  denn  300  Ausdrucken;  namentlich  wenn  sie  sich  in  Gebet  zum 
Himmel  wandten,  redeten  sie  den  Geber  aller  Gaben  mit  immer  neuen  Wendungen  an,  wie 
ein  Bettler,  der  einen  Reichen  schmeichelt. " 

20  Bode,  Kenningar,  p.  79  ff.  No  attempt  has  been  made  to  distinguish  between  the 
three  persons.  Rankin,  A  Study  of  the  Kennings  in  Anglo-Saxon  Poetry,  Journal  of  English 
and  Germanic  Philology,  VIII,  p.  374  ff.    He  also  gives  Latin  equivalents. 

21  For  further  remarks  see  Introduction,  p.  13  ff. 


66  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [66 

659,  mihta  god,  El.  785,  sigora  god,  1307,  heofonrices  god,  1124,  wuldres  god, 
Gu.  1054,  engla  god,  Ex.  380,  etc.,  waldend  god,  Gen.  520,  ic  wealdend  god 
wordum  herige  (Deo  laudabo),  Ps.  LV,  4,  alwaldend  god,  Message  31,  drihten 
god,  Beow.  181,  dryhten  god,  Jud.  300,  etc.,  etc.,  on  god  drihten  gearewe 
gewene  (in  Deo  speravi),  LV,  4,  nergende  god,  Met.  XXIX,  74,  Gen.  1924, 
hcelend  god,  Sat.  281,  min  halend  god,  (Deus  mens),  Ps.  CXVII,  26,  hcelend 
god  (Deus  salvos  faciendi),  LXVII,  20,  hcelend  god  (Deus  salutaris  noster), 
LXIV,  6.  Heonan  ic  cleopige  to  heahgode  and  to  waldendgode  (clamabo  ad 
Deum  altissimuml  Deum),  Ps.  LVI,  2,  se  is  waldendgode  wel  liciendlic 
(beneplacitum  est  Deo),  LXVII,  16.  It  may  be  noted  here  that  godes  agen 
beam,  e.  g.,  El.  179,  is  very  frequently  found,  where  of  course  the  reference 
in  godes  is  clearly  to  the  first  person. 

181.  Feeder  is  often  used  where  God  conceived  as  one  or  the  first  person 
is  meant,  though  the  term  is  also  applied  to  Christ.  The  reference  is  clear 
in  the  formula  mentioning  the  three  persons  of  the  Trinity,  as,  feeder  and 
sunu  andjrofre  gast,  And.  1684,  etc.  In  most  of  the  other  cases  the  context 
indicates  to  whom  the  term  is  applied.  We  note,  halig  feeder,  Met.  XX, 
46,  etc.,  bilewit  feeder,  XX,  69,  255,  similarly  And.  997,  Dan.  363,  Az.  139 
Gen.  856,  etc.;  beorht  feeder,  And.  937,  etc.,  pees  breman  feeder,  Doom  296, 
feeder  frefergendum,  Sat.  318,  an  feeder  ece,  Maxims  9,  feeder  celmihtig, 
Prayer  III,  51,  a  term  very  frequent;  nergende  feeder,  Gn.  Cot.  63,  waldend 
fader,  Cr.  163,  feeder  alwalda,  Beow.  316,  fader  engla,  Met.  XX,  153,  263, 
275,  And.  1412,  El.  783,  Men.  226,  etc.,  feeder  frumsceafta,  Moods  66,  fader 
frymda  gehwas,  Ph.  197.  pinne  wuldorfader,  Cr.  217,  sodfader,  103,  lifiap 
nu  on  heofenum  mid  heahfadere  (otherwise  term  for  patriarch,  see  25), 
RoodB,  134,  on  ~Sa  swidran  hand  /  dinum  godfader,  Hymn  31. 

182.  God  is  scippend,  the  creator.  Though  the  term  is  not  seldom  also 
applied  to  Christ,  it  would  seem  that  the  Godhead  or  the  first  person  is 
more  often  regarded  as  the  creator.  References  to  the  work  of  creation 
are  very  frequent,  the  creation  being  godes  handgesceaft,  Gen.  455.  Man 
was  created  according  to  the  anlicnes,  the  image  of  God,  Monn  was  to 
godes  J  anlicnesse  arest  gesceapen,  Gen.  1528-9,  par  he  hafd  mon  geworhtne  / 
after  his  onlicnesse,  395-6.  Scippend  is  very  frequent,  as,  An  sceppend  is 
butan  oleum  tweon,  /  se  is  eac  waldend  woruldgesceafta,  Met.  XI,  1-2,  du  eca 
and  du  almihliga  /  ealra  gesceafta  sceppend  and  reccendl  IV,  29-30,  scippend 
scirra  tungla,  /  hefones  and  eordan!  IV,  1-2,  heofona  scyppend,  And.  192, 
frympa  scyppend,  Ph.  630,  mihta  scyppend,  Gu.  1131,  engla  scyppend, 
And.  119,  gasta  scyppend,  Dan.  292,  315,  El.  790,  similarly  Jul.  181;  alda 
scyppend,  Wand.  85,  weoruda  scyppend,  Instructions  62.  Here  may  also 
be  added  eall  geworhtest  /  "ding  pearle  good,  Met.  XX,  44-5,  se  wyrhta,  Gen. 
125,  apele  se  wyrhta,  Ph.  9,  wuldres  wyrhta,  130. 


67]  THE  DEITY  67 

183.  Fruma,  creator,  founder,  is  found  a  number  of  times.  We  note, 
moncynnes  fruma,  Met.  XXIX,  42,  Ph.  377,  upengla  fruma,  And.  226, 
sigores  fruma,  Cr.  294,  mccr'd a  fruma,  Chr.  Ill,  B,  21,  lijes  fruma,  El.  792, 
etc.  Of  compounds  may  be  quoted  lifes  leohtfruma,  And.  1413,  Gen.  175, 
926,  1410,  etc.,  Met.  XI,  72,  lifes  ordfruma,  Cr.  227,  engla  ordfruma,  And. 
146,  Sat.  239,  etc.  We  find  D«  eart  eallra  fiinga,  peoda  waldend,  /  fruma 
and  endel    Met.  XX,  274-5. 

184.  Metod2"1  a  poetic  term,23  is  extremely  common  in  the  poetry.  We 
note  only  meotud  moncynnes,  And.  172,  Ph.  176,  etc.,  metod  engla,  Gen.  121, 
similarly  Gu.  1105,  etc.  To  these  might  be  added  a  host  of  expressions 
showing  metod  governing  different  kinds  of  objects.  We  note  also  eald 
metod,  Beow.  945,  milde  metod,  Maldon  175,  similarly  Met.  XXIX,  69. 

185.  God  is  cyning,  a  term  extremely  frequent.  Engla  cyning,  Met. 
XIII,  12,  gasta  god  cyning,  Prayer  IV,  39,  nergende  cyning,  49,  etc.  etc. 
But  similar  terms  and  phrases  we  pass  over  in  order  to  give  a  few  of  the 
more  important  compounds.  Wuldorcyning  is  frequent,  occurring  Ph.  196, 
Whale  67,  85,  similarly  Beow.  2795;  weroda  wuldorcyning,  Met.  XX,  162, 
similarly  Gen.  2;  heahcyning,  Ph.  129,  etc.,  heofona  heahcyning,  Ph.  446, 
And.  6,  etc.,  heahcyning  heofones,  Dan.  408,  sweglcyning,  Gen.  2658,  simi- 
larly Gu.  1055;  pry mcyning,  Moods  62,  peoda  pry mcyning,  Met.  XX,  205, 
deoda  prymcyningc,  Invocation  2,  peodcyning,  Soul  12,  gen.  sing.  Rid.  68,  1 
(only  two  occurrences  in  the  religious  sense),24  mcegencyning,  El.  1247, 
mcegencyninges  prea,  Judg.  57,  mcegencyninga  hyhst,  6,  sigora  soficyning, 
Beow.  3055,  Ph.  329,  etc.  Of  characteristic  modifiers  we  add,  on  riht 
cyning,  Ph.  664,  blidheort  cyning,  Gen.  192,  stififrihp  cining,  107,  stiZferZ 
cyning,  241,  stidmod  cyning,  2423. 

22  The  term  has  been  treated  by  Grimm,  D.M.,  I,  18  f.,  Ill,  15.  Vilmar,  Deutsche  Alter- 
tiimer  im  Heliand,  p.  11,  remarks:  "Metod,  der  messende,  ordnende,  welcher  auch  im  angel- 
sachsischen  iiblich  geblieben  ist,  da  er  am  wenigsten  speciell  heidnischen  Inhalt  zu  haben 
scheint  vielmehr  im  ganzen  nur  fur  eine  formelle  bezeichnung  des  hochsten  wesens  gelten 
kann,  sich  also  sehr  wohl  in  die  leliren  der  christlichen  kirche  fiigte. "  Grein,  Sprachsckatz, 
claims  that  in  heathen  times  the  word  had  probably  the  meaning  of  fate.  In  support  of  this 
view  he  points  to  W'ald.  A.  19,  dy  ic  Se  metod  ondred,  and  to  on  meotudwange  (battle  field), 
And.  11.  as  also  to  compounds  in  related  languages.  Rankin,  VIII,  420,  thinks,  though  the 
etymological  significance  may  be  creator,  in  the  majority  of  cases  'it  means  deus.'  Klaeber, 
Anglia,  XXXV,  124,  remarks:  "Heidnischer  character  ist  dem  worte  nicht  anzumerken; 
doch  ist  an  die  interessante  nebeneinanderstellung  von  wyrd  und  Metod  zu  erinnern.  Beow. 
2526  f.,  Seef   115  f.  (Beow  979  Meotod:  2574  wyrd)." 

23  Excepting  se  metoda  drihten  twice  in  ^Elfric's  Homilies,  and  there  in  alliterative  pas- 
sages. B.-T 

24  According  to  Rankin,  VIII,  404,  peod  may  have  become  an  intensifier,  peodcyning 
signifying  "the  mighty  king." 


68  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [68 

186.  Dryhten,  originally  leader  of  the  host,25  OS.  drohtin,  OHG.  truhtin, 
ON.  drottin,  generally  rendering  L.  dominus,2*  is  extremely  common.  As 
lord,  ruler,  chief,  it  is  also  frequently  used  in  the  secular  sense.  Thus  Sarah 
calls  Abraham  Drihten  min  Gen.  2225.  We  note  as  occurrences  in  the 
religious  sense,  hcdend  drihten  {Dominus  salvabit  me),  Ps.  LIV,  16,  hcdend 
drihten  (Deus  salutaris  nosier),  LXXXIV,  4,  hcelend  drihten  (Dominum), 
CXLV,  1,  CXLVIII,  1,  hcelynd  drihten(-),  CVII,  6,  god  dryhten,  El.  759, 
dryhtna  dryhtne,  And.  1151,  Whale  84,  similarly  Gen.  638;  sigedrihten, 
Gen.  523,  similarly  Gu.  1212,  Judg.  92;  sigedrihten  god,  Met.  XX,  260, 
sigora  dryhten,  El.  346,  similarly  1139;  dugufia  dryhten,  El.  81,  Ph.  494, 
gumena  drihten,  Gen.  515,  weoruda  dryhten,-1  Sermon  Ps.  28,  8,  10,  Soul  14, 
etc.,  etc.,  gcBsta  dryhten,  Judg.  81,  weondddriktnes,  Met.  XXIX,  1. 

187.  Wealdend,  the  wielder,  the  ruling  one,  is  extremely  frequent.  We 
give  a  number  of  kennings  in  order  to  show  the  great  variety,  pone 
selestan  sigora  waldend!  Moods  84,  sigora  w.,28  Met.  XI,  71,  Beow.  2875, 
rodera  w.,  Met.  X,  30,  heofona  w.,  XIII,  6,  XXIX,  72,  frymfia  w.,  Jud.  5, 
wuldres  w.,  And.  193,  Dan.  13,  etc.,  lifes  w.,  Met.  XX,  268,  XXI,  36,  Judg. 
85,  gasta  w.,  Gen.  2174,  w.  engla,  El.  772,  w.  manna,  Az.  96,  jolca  w.,  L. 
Prayer  I,  10,  w.fira,  Beow.  2741,  ylda  w.,  1661,  duguda  w.,  Jud.  61,  fieoda 
w.,  Maldon  173,  similarly  Met.  XX,  256;  mcegena  w.,  El.  347,  weoroda  w., 
751,  etc.  As  compound  we  note  se  ricesda  /  ealles  oferwealdend,  1235. 
Similarly  we  have  alwalda  Beow.  1314,  etc.,  se  allwalda,  Gen.  292,  etc., 
ealwalda  engelcynna,  246,  to  anwaldan,  Beow.  1272,  ecne  onwealdan  ealra 
gesceafta,  Gu.  610.29 

188.  Frea,  Goth,  frauja,  OS.  fra(h)o,  OHG.  fro,  is  not  infrequently 
used.30  Frea  folces  gehwces,  feeder  celmihtig,  Dan.  401,  frumsceafta  frea, 
Ex.  21  A,  frea  engla,  Gen.  157,  2836,  etc.,  sigora  frean,  Ph.  675;  lijfrea,  Beow. 
16,  similarly  Gen.  16;  agendfrea,  2141,  the  same  term  being  applied  to 
Sarah  2237. 

189.  peoden,  really  the  chief  of  the  people,  is  not  very  frequent.  Se 
dioden,  Met.  XI,  80,  peoden  engla,  Maldon  178,  El.  776,  engla  peoden,  Ex. 
431,  dearlmod  peoden  gumena,  Jud.  91,  etc. 

25  Koehler,  Germania,  XIII,  p.  131,  says:  "dryhten,  dass  ganz  entschieden  germanische 
Anschauung  verrath,  indem  Gott  als  oberster  Kriegsherr  bezeich.net  wird,  wenn  auch  nicht 
gerade  hierin  eine  Anspielung  auf  den  Sieg  spendenden  Wodan,  den  Valfedr,  zu  suchen  sein 
wird." 

28  Rankin,  VIII,  p.  413. 

27 Ibid.,  p.  405:  "Undoubtedly  equivalent  to  dominus  exercituttm." 

28  Read  waldend  or  wealdend. 

29  Under  wealdend  we  note  wyrda  wealdend,  El.  80,  etc.,  of  which  Rankin,  VIII,  414,  says: 
"An  interesting  analogical  formation.  Is  there  any  allusion  to  the  Norns,  or  does  the  term 
mean  simply  'ruler  of  destinies'?    The  latter  is  more  probable." 

30  In  OE.  and  OS.  this  term  is  being  superseded  by  dryhten,  drohtin. 


69]  THE  DEITY  69 

190.  Brego,31  ruler,  chief,  is  used  a  few  times.  Br  ego  moncynnes,  Judg. 
7,  Met.  XX,  43,  brego  engla,  Ph.  497,  Chr.  Ill,  B,  36,  Gen.  181,  976, 
1008,  etc. 

191.  Hearra,32  lord,  chief,  master,  applied  also  to  men,  is  frequent  in 
the  Genesis.  Referring  to  Adam,  herra  se  goda,  678,  hire  hearran,  654,  to  the 
chief  devil,  hearran  sinum,  726.  Ahof  hine  wid  his  hearran,  263,  uncres 
hearran,  /  heofoncyninges,  658,  herran  pines,  567,  etc.,  are  applied  to  God. 

192.  Ealdor,  lord,  chief,  is  not  so  very  frequent.  Swegles  aldor,  Gen. 
2807,  similarly  Jud.  88,  124;  wuldres  aldor,  Gen.  639,  wuldris  aldor,  1511, 
wuldres  ealdor,  Jul.  153,  Partridge  4,  Judg.  82,  Seaf.  123,  etc.,  lifes  aldor, 
Gen.  2762,  weoroda  ealdor,  Cr.  229,  gcesta  ealdor,  Judg.  91. 

193.  Weard  is  extremely  common.  We  note  a  few  of  the  more  charac- 
teristic examples.  Heah  hordes  weard,  Wonders  39,  hluttor  heofones  w.,33 
52,  heofonrices  w.,  Dan.  12,  done  haligan  heofonrices  w..  Charm  I,  27,  etc., 
etc.,  pu  on  ecnesse  awa,  drihten  hea,  hehsta  bist  heofonrices  w.  (tu  autem 
Altissimus  in  aeternum  Domine),  Ps.  XCI,  7,  similarly  XC,  1;  rodera  w., 
Cr.  222,  etc.,  Met.  XI,  20,  rice  rcedwitan,  rodera  weardas  {Father  and  Son), 
Doom  299,  middangeardes  w.,  And.  227,  gasta  w.,  El.  1021,  similarly  Gu. 
1177;  engla  w.,  El.  1100,  etc.,  moncynnes  w.,  Gen.  2757,  folca  w.,  Gifts  20, 
leohtes  w.,  Judg.  53,  sigora  w.,  Met.  XI,  27,  lifes  w.,  Gen.  144,  163,  Gu.  901. 
Of  compounds  we  note  from  the  Psalms,  heora  heafodweard  holdne  (Excel- 
sum),  LXXVII,  19,  erfeweard  ealra  deoda  (tu  hereditabis  in  omnibus  genti- 
bus),  LXXXI,  8. 

194.  Hldford  is  employed  only  occasionally  in  the  religious  sense. 
Applied  to  God  we  find  it  Gen.  2313,  etc.,  while  the  examples  for  Christ 
are  a  little  more  numerous.  At  a  later  time  the  word  becomes  more  fre- 
quent, while  metod,  etc.,  are  discarded. 

195.  Agend,  really  possessor,  is  found  only  a  few  times.  Thus,  se  agend, 
Ex.  295,  lifes  agend,  Wonders  55,  lifes  agend,  Hymn  3,  etc. 

196.  Helm,  protector,  is  not  very  frequent.  Helm  eallwihta,  Gen.  113, 
se  halga  helm  celwihta,  And.  118,  engla  helm,  Gen.  2751,  gasta  helm,  2420, 
similarly  1793. 

197.  Hyrde  is  used  a  number  of  times.  Heofona  hyrde,  Judg.  86, 
tungla  hyrde,  Prayer  IV,  9,  prymmes  hyrde,  El.  348,  Jud.  60,  Jul.  280, 
wuldres  hyrde,  Beow.  931,  gasta  hyrde,  Dan.  199,  dugutia  hyrde,  Gen.  164, 

31  Grimm,  Andreas  &•  Elene,  Cassel,  1840,  p.  97,  remarks:  "Kemble  hat  richtig  bemerkt, 
dass  das  wort  weder  im  gen.  und  dat.,  noch  in  pi.  vorkomme,  es  gilt,  gleich  dem  ahd.  fro, 
nur  als  titel  und  anrede.  Lauter  zeichen  hohes  altertums." 

32  Old  Low  German  loan;  comparative  of  OTeut.  *hairo,  old,  venerable.  Compare 
NED.  under  her. 

33  Read  weard. 


70  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [70 

leohtes  hyrde,  Prayer  IV,  7,  Az.  121,  129,  fieoda  hyrde,  Az.  150;  feorhhyrde, 
Dox.  8. 

198.  Geocend,  preserver,  is  not  frequent.  Gasta  geocend,  El.  682, 
gcesta  geocend,  Gu.  1106,  etc. 

199.  Brytta,  dispenser  or  distributer,  is  also  not  very  frequent.  Torht- 
mod  tires  brytta,  Jud.  93,  boldes  brytta,  El.  162,  lifes  brytta,  Gen.  122,  129. 

200.  Nergend,  although  generally  applied  to  Christ,  may  also  designate 
the  Godhead,  or  the  first  person  of  the  Trinity.34  Nergend  or  nergend  usser 
is  frequent  in  Genesis,  as  855,  903,  1367,  etc.,  Met.  XX,  249,  sawla  nergend, 
Ph.  498,  Gn.  Ex.  135,  nida  nergend,  Dan.  313,  El.  503,  1085,  similarly  Gu. 
612;  nerigend  fir  a,  El.  1172,  nergend  wera,  L.  Prayer  I,  3. 

201.  HcSlend  is  rare,  being  found  twice,  tower  pan  wuldres  leoman,  / 
beam  helendes,  Sat.  86,  and  ymb  preo  niht  com  pegen  hcelendes  /  ham  to  helle, 
426. 

202.  We  note  here  also  rodera  radend,  Beow.  1555,  Chr.  Ill,  B,  23, 
stadolfcest  styrend,  And.  121,  deoda  rctswan,  1622,  scyldend  usser  {Protector 
noster),  Ps.  LXXXIII,  9,  weoruda  wilgiefa,  Ph.  465,  etc. 

203.  Dema  and  demend,  used  a  few  times.  Ford  on  him  is  dema  drihten 
sylfa  (quoniam  Deus  judex  est),  Ps.  LXXIV,  6,  cela  dema  god,  Prayer  I,  1, 
hehstan  demon,  Jud.  4,  se  hehsta  dema,  94,  wuldres  dema,  59.  Dugufia 
demend,  And.  1189,  Dceda  demend,  Beow.  181,  God  sceal  on  heofenum  / 
dceda  demend,  Gn.  Cot.  36. 

204.  To  show  the  fondness  of  OE.  poets  for  kennings  and  the  extreme 
tendency  to  heap  them,  we  note  that  in  the  9  lines  of  Ccedmon's  Hymn  no 
fewer  than  8  occur,  which  with  a  single  exception  differ  from  one  another, 
heofonrices  weard,  meotodes  meahte,  wuldorfader,  ece  drihten,  halig  scyppend, 
monncynnes  weard,  ece  drihten,  frea  celmihtig.  We  select  two  other  passages, 
Dan.  331-3,  pat  pu  ana  eart  ece  drihten,  /  weroda  waldend,  woruldgesceajta,  / 
sigora  settend,  sodfast  metod!  and  Met.  XXIX,  79-83,  he  is  weroda  god,  / 
cyning  and  drihten  swucera  gehwelces,  /  awelm  and  fruma  eallra  gesceafta,  / 
wyrhta  and  sceppend  weorulde  pisse,  /  wisdom  and  a  woruldbuendra. 

V.     Qualities 

205.  In  giving  here  a  number  of  the  more  important  qualities  of  the 
Deity,35  we  are  fully  aware  that  some  of  them  are  so  closely  associated  with 

34  Bode,  Kenningar,  p.  73,  remarks:  "Fur  die  drei  Personen  werden  demnach  dieselben 
Kenningar  gebraucht,  mit  Ausnahme  einer  weniger  wie  nergend.  ..."  His  assertion,  here 
as  also  in  other  cases,  is  not  borne  out  by  the  facts.  Very  few  kennings  are  applied  to  the 
third  person  of  the  Trinity. 

35  For  OHG.  see  Raumer,  p.  342  ff.,  where  a  few  of  the  qualities  and  gifts  of  the  Deity 
are  discussed.    For  ON.  compare  Kahle,  I,  378-80,  II,  128-9,  137-9. 


71]  THE  DEITY  71 

particular  names  as  almost  to  become  phrases.  Many  of  them  will 
be  found  among  the  kennings  in  our  list,  but  it  seemed  best  to  assemble 
the  terms  for  a  few  of  the  more  important,  though  no  attempt  at  com- 
pleteness has  been  made.  Qualities  ascribed  to  the  Godhead,  the  Father, 
and  the  Son  will  appear,  but  the  distinction  has  generally  been  indicated. 

206.  God  is  a  spirit,  as,  ana  ece  gast,  Dan.  627,  godspedig  gast,  Gen. 
1009.    The  fact  that  God  is  one  is  not  seldom  referred  to. 

207.  God  is  ece  and  celmihtig,  which  qualities  are  often  ascribed  to  him. 
Sometimes  both  occur  together,  thus,  du  eca  and  du  celmihtiga,  Met.  IV, 
29,  se  eca  and  se  odmihtiga,  XI,  74,  XX,  132.  JElmihtig,  /  micel,  modilic, 
marpum  gefrcege  /  and  wunderlic  witena  gehwylcuml  XX,  1-3,  Zone  miclan 
drihten,  Charm  I,  26,  felameahtigne  feeder  in  heofonum,  Az.  156,  similarly 
140;  Nis  nan  mihtigra  ne  nan  mar  a  /  ne  geond  ealle  pa  gesceaft  efnlica  "din! 
Met.  XX,  18-19.  Practically  the  same  attributes  are  ascribed  to  Christ. 
He  is  cyning  on  riht  /  wealdend  and  ivyrhta  wuldorprymmes ,  /  an  ece  god 
eallra  gesceafta,  And.  324-6,  ece  Crist,  Prayer  IV,  55.  Meotod  celmihtig, 
And.  902,  anwealda  celmihtig,  Rood  B,  153,  celmihtig  god,  156;  ece  celmihtig 
cerist  gefremede,  Gu.  1073,  ece  celmihtig,  And.  249,  365,  El.  799,  etc. 

208.  We  have  the  statement  God  us  ece  bip:  /  ne  wendad  hine  wyrda  ne 
hine  wiht  drecep  Gn.  Ex.  8-9,  the  Latin  deus  immutabilis.  Geunwendnes , 
L.  immutabilitas ,  is  found  Ps.  LXXVI,  9.  The  noun  ecnes  is  used  not 
infrequently,  especially  in  the  Psalms,  pu  in  ecnesse  awa .  .  hehsta  bist 
(in  aeternum),  XCI,  7,  pu  in  ecnysse  wunast  awa  {in  aeternum),  CI,  10, 
on  ecnesse,  Cr.  313,  pcet  we  wuldres  eard  /  in  ecnesse  agan  mosten,  1204. 
Here  may  also  be  noticed,  and  fie  self  wunast  swide  stille  /  unawendendlic  a 
ford  simlel  Met.  XX,  16-17,  se  ana  dema  is  gestceddig  / Unawendendlic, 
wlitig  and  mare,  XXIV,  42-3. 

209.  Halig,  applied  to  both  God  and  Christ,  is  extremely  common. 
Referring  to  God,  halig  god,  And.  14,  91,  peer  halig  god  /  wid  fcerbryne  folc 
gescylde,  Ex.  71,  se  halga  dry  Men,  Prayer  IV,  1,  halig  is  se  halga  heahengla 
god,  El.  750,  etc.  Said  of  Christ,  Du  eart  sodlice  simle  halig,  Hymn  36, 
(clypiad  to  Criste,  line  12)  Halig  eart  pu,  halig,  heofonengla  cyningc,  L. 
Prayer  III,  13,  halig  eart  pu  halig  heahengla  brego,  /  sod  sigores  freal  simle 
pu  bist  halig,  Cr.  403-4.  Halignes  is  extremely  rare.  We  find  it  in  the 
sense  of  sanctitas  Ps.  LXXXVIII,  32,  while  XCV,  6,  it  renders  sanctimonia. 

210.  Sod  is  frequently  applied  to  both  God  and  Christ.  Du  soda  god, 
Met.  XX,  51,  sodne  god,  Rim.  87,  sod  cyning,  Met.  XX,  246.  Referring 
to  Christ,  we  note  only  Ealapu  soda  andpu  sibsuma,  /  ealra  cyninga  cyning, 


72  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [72 

Crist  celmihtig!  Cr.  214-15,  etc.  Sodfcest  is  often  found,  used  of  both  God 
and  Christ.  Sodfcest  sylfa  dryhten  {rectus  Dominus  Deus  noster),  Ps.  XCI, 
14,  drihten  is  so'dfcest  (Justus),  CXXVIII,  3;  applied  to  Christ,  sodfast 
meotud,  And.  386,  sodfcsstne  god,  L.  Prayer  III,  54,  sofifcest  sigorbeorht, 
Cr.  10,  etc.  The  noun  sodfcestnes,  frequent  in  the  Psalms,  renders  Veritas, 
justitia,  justificaiiones.  Thus,  Veritas  Ps.  LVI,  12,  pine  sofifcestnesse  (jus- 
titiae),  LXX,  16,  on  pinre  sodfcestnysse  (justificationibus) ,  CXVIII,  16. 
Outside  of  the  Psalms  we  have  it  El.  1148,  secean  sofifcestnesse,  /  weg  to 
wuldre. 

211.  A  term  closely  related  is  rihtnes,  very  rare  in  the  Psalms.  His 
syndrig  folc  on  rihtnesse  rcede  gebringed  (in  aequitate),  XCVII,  9,  (bebodu) 
wurdan  sofifceste  and  on  rihtnysse  roeda  getrymede  (facta  in  veritate  et  aequi- 
tate), CX,  5.  Here  may  also  be  noted  rihtwlsnes,  rectitudo,  justitia,  e.g.,  Ps. 
LXXXVII,  12. 

212.  The  benignity  and  liberality  of  God  are  frequently  emphasized. 
We  note  milde,  as,  milde  meotod,  Az.  90,  se  milda  metod,  Met.  XXIX,  69; 
of  Christ,  moncynnes  milde  scyppend,  Cr.  417,  swa  we  mildum  wid  fie,  / 
almihtigum  gode  oft  abylgead,  L.  Prayer  II,  21.  Mildheort  is  seldom  found 
outside  of  the  Psalms.  In  the  examples  we  give  other  terms  of  a  similar 
character  also  occur.  He  ponne  is  mildheort  and  mandwcsre  (misericors — 
propitius),~LXX.'VII,  37 ,  Mildheort  pu  eart  and  mihtig,  mode  gepyldig,  .  .  . 
is  pin  milde  mod  mannum  cyded  (Miser ator  et  misericors  Dominus:  longani- 
mus,  et  multum  misericors),  CII,  8,  Mildheort  is  drihten  and  mannpware  and 
gepyldig  eac,  pearle  mildheort  (miserator — et  misericors  Dominus,  patiens, 
et  multum  misericors),  CXLIV,  8.  Mildheortnes  is  confined  to  the  Psalms, 
rendering  the  Latin  misericordia.  The  term  is  not  infrequent,  occurring 
for  instance  LXXXV,  12,  CII,  11. 

213 .  Fremsum,  L.  benignus,  is  used  a  few  times,  pin  milde  mod  mannum 
fremsum  (benigna  est  misericordia  tua),  Ps.  LXVIII,  16,  SyWS  us  fremsum 
god  fcegere  drihten  (Dominus  dabit  benignitatem) ,  LXXXIV,  11,  fcestrced 
and  fremsum  (bonus),  CXXXIV,  3.  Fremsumnes  renders  benignitas  Ps. 
LXIV,  12. 

214.  Fcele  is  not  very  frequent,  pin  eartjcele  god  (Deus),  Ps.  LXVI,  3, 
Folc  pe  andettan  jcelne  drihten  (Deus),  5,  fcelum  fader (-),  LXXXVIII,  23, 
fcele  dryhten  (Dominus),  CXVII,  6,  7. 

215.  Living  is  not  infrequent  as  an  attribute.  Lifiende  god(-),  Ps. 
LXX,  8,  lifigende  god,  (Deus),  16,  Gefultuma  us,frea  celmihtig,  and  alys  us, 
lifigende  god  (Adjuva  nos  Deus  salutaris  noster:  et  propter  gloriam  nominis 
tui  Domine  libera  nos),  LXXVIII,  9,  lifgende  god,  Prayer  IV,  18,  Az.  78, 
pu  lignest  nu,  pcet  sie  lifgende,  /  se  ofer  deoflum  dugupum  wealded,  Dan. 


73]  THE  DEITY  73 

764-5,  lifiendum  gode,  Soul  69,  etc.  Said  of  Christ,  se  lifgenda,  Gu.  1072, 
lifiende  Crist,  Ps.  L.  126,  Crist  lifiend,  Prayer  III,  22,  god  lifigende,  And. 
1409,  Sat.  574. 

216.  Famous  is  used  sometimes.  Mare  god,  Prayer  IV,  4,  pu  eart 
mare  god  and  Jacobes  god  se  nicer  a  (Deus  Jacob),  Ps.  LXXXIII,  8;  applied 
to  Christ,  hu  pu  mare  eart,  mihtig  drihten,  Prayer  III,  17,  hu  pu  mcere  eart, 
mihtig  and  magenstrang,  21,  din  sunu  mcere,  Dox.  10,  etc.  We  note  further 
bremen  dryhten,  Az.  116,  142, pees  breman  fader,  Doom  296,  applied  to  God; 
referring  to  Christ,  fram  gebyrdtide  breman  cinges,  Chr.  Ill,  A,  13. 

217.  Wise  is  used  a  few  times,  &at  is  wis  cyning,  Met.  XSCIV,  34, 
witig  drihten,  Beow.  1554,  witig  dryhten,  Deor  32,  wigtig  drihten,  Beow. 
1841,  witig  god,  Cr.  226;  of  Christ,  sigefast  and  snottor,  Har.  23,  reH)e  and 
rihtwis,  L.  Prayer  III,  63. 

218.  Humility  is  a  number  of  times  ascribed  to  Christ.  Eafimod,  Gu. 
496,  Cr.  255,  purh  eafimedu  ealle  biddafi,  359;  apparently  corresponding  to 
L.  benignus,  pu  eart  se  miccla  and  se  magenstranga  /  and  se  eadmoda  ealra 
goda,  Prayer  III,  39,  swa  pu  eadmod  eart  ealre  worlde,  L.  Prayer  III,  57. 
Applied  to  God,  para  eadmetta  eardfeest,  Met.  VII,  38. 

219.  Purity  is  asserted  of  Christ,  for  instance,  pat  is  se  clana  Crist, 
drihten  god,  L.  Prayer  II,  17,  pu  eart  cyning  on  riht  /  clane  and  craftig,  Dox. 
53,  and  it  is  also  said  of  him,  of  grundum  godbearn  astag,  /  cyning  clanra 
gehwas,  Cr.  702-3. 

220.  A  number  of  terms  may  here  conveniently  be  gathered  together, 
such  as  tirfast  metod,  Gen.  1044,  domfast  cyning,  2376,  Az.  99,  wuldorfast 
cyning,  133,  warfast  metod,  Gen.  1320,  1549,  drfast,  2405,  hu  arfast  is 
ealles  waldend,  El.  512,  the  noun  in  the  sense  of  mercy,  pity,  occurring 
Hymn  23,  de  fly  manscilde  middangeardes  /  for  pinre  arfqstnesse  ealle 
towurpe  (Christ). 

221.  Love,  anger,  etc.,  etc.,  are  also  ascribed  to  God,  but  these  and 
similar  terms  need  no  discussion  here. 

222.  A  few  striking  expressions  referring  to  the  Godhead  or  the  Father 
may  follow  here.  Frifistol  (refugium),  a  few  times  in  the  Psalms,  as 
LXXXIX,  1,  similarly  XCIII,  21.  Dw  eart  sio  birhtu  .  .  .  /  sofies  leohtes 
and  du  self  a  eart  /  sio  faste  rast,  .  .  .  /  eallra  sofifastra,  Met.  XX,  269-72, 
hiofones  leohtes  hlutre  beorhto,  XXI,  39,  pat  micle  leoht  /  godes  almihtiges, 
42-3,  fiat  is  sio  sofie  sunne  mid  rihte,  XXX,  17.  Dm  eart  self  a  weg  /  and 
latteow  eac  lifgendra  gehwas  /  and  sio  wlitige  stow,  pe  se  weg  to  lig"d,  Met. 
XX,  277-9.  pu  earce  eart  eallhaligra  (tu  et  area  sanctificationis  tuae),  Ps. 
CXXXI,  8.    Forpan  fiti  edest  miht  ealra  laca,  Prayer  I,  6. 


74  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [74 

VI.     Gifts 

223.  Many  are  the  gifts  bestowed  upon  man  by  the  Deity,  and  refer- 
ences to  them  are  frequent.36  Since  the  gifts  of  God  and  Christ  are  prac- 
tically the  same,  and  as  no  clear  distinction  is  made  in  many  cases,  we  shall 
treat  the  whole  subject  here,  pointing  out,  however,  distinctive  references. 

224.  We  may  open  the  discussion  by  quoting  from  Meters,  where  the 
goodness  of  God  is  emphasized  as  also  the  fact  that  he  is  the  author  of  all 
good  things.  For  gode  godes,  Met.  Ill,  10,  din  goodness  is,  /  celmihtig  god, 
eall  mid  de  selfum,  XX,  31-2,  eart  fie  self  a  /  pat  hehste  good,  45-6,  awelm 
.  .  .  eallra  gooda,  259,  pone  hlutrestan  heofontorhtan  stream,  /  adelne 
cewelm  celces  goodes,  XXIII,  3-4,  pat  hehste  good  on  heahsetle  /  sited  sylf 
cyning,  XXIX,  75-6.  From  the  Psalms  we  note,  se  goda  god(-),  CV,  36, 
ecne  drihten  pane  goodan  god  {Domino  quoniam  bonus),  CVI,  1,  similarly 
CXVII,  1,  2,  etc. 

225.  Bletsian  and  gebletsian  are  comparatively  frequent,  especially  in 
the  Psalms.  We  note  only,  gebletsige  (benedicant)  us,  Hide  drihten,  and 
usic  god  eac  bletsige  (benedicant) ,  Ps.  LXVI,  6,  pa  he  Noe  /  gebletsade,  Gen. 
1505.  The  noun  is  bletsung,  as,  brohte  him  bletsunge  (benedictionem) ,  Ps. 
LXXXIII,  7,  bletsung  (benedictio) ,  CXXVIII,  6,  He  onfon  sceal  /  blisse 
minre  and  bletsunge,  Gen.  2331,  poet  nu  bletsung  mot  bcem  gem  Gene  /  werum 
and  wifum  (in  Heaven),  Cr.  100. 

226.  A  word  closely  related  is  segnian  and  gesegnian.  His  wuduan  ic 
wordum  bletsige  and  gesegnade  (benedicens  benedicam),  Ps.  CXXXI,  16, 
applied  to  the  ark,  segnade  earce  innan  agenum  s pedum,  Gen.  1365,  referring 
to  Christ's  blessing  at  the  Judgment  Day,  gesenade  /  on  edel  faran  engla 
dreames,  Cr.  1342.  Segnung  occurs  Ps.  CXXXI,  19,  where  (cymed)  minra 
segnunga  sodfast  blostma  translates  efflorebit  sanctificatio  mea. 

227 '.  Halu,  f.,  in  the  sense  of  salutare,  solus,  is  very  common.  Ece 
hcelu  (salutare),  Ps.  LII,  7,  peer  ic  on  pinre  halo  hyldo  sohte  (salutare), 
CXVIII,  123,  halo  and  frojre,  And.  95,  mid  heortan  halo  secen,  Cr.  752, 
halo  strynan,  1575,  pare  halo,  pe  he  us  to  hyhte  forgeaf,  613.  Hal,  fn., is  also 
frequently  used.  We  note  only,  sawlum  to  hale,  L.  Prayer  II,  16,  Dis  is 
an  hal  earmre  sawle  (sola  salus  animae,  22),  Doom  43,  his  (thief)  hale 
begeat  and  help  recene  (salutem  31),  62.  The  verbs  halan  and  gehalan  are 
also  used,  the  participle  being  often  applied  to  Christ,  as,  halendne  cyning, 
Creed  10. 

228.  Alysnes  will  be  discussed  under  redemption  of  Christ.  Alysing 
in  the  sense  of  redemption  we  have,  He  alysinge  leojum  jolce  sode  onsende 
(redemptionem) ,  Ps.  CX,  6.    Alysend  is  applied  to  God,  eart  alysend  min 

86  For  ON.  see  Kahle,  II,  p.  129,  139-40. 


75]  THE  DEITY  75 

{liberator),  Ps.  LXIX,  7,  alysend  {redemptor),  LXXVII,  34.  Lysan, 
dlysan,  tolysan  are  not  infrequently  employed.  Probably  referring  to  the 
Father,  we  have,  sawle  alysan,  L.  Prayer  III,  4,  eft  hig  alyse,  /  sawle  of 
synnum  purh  pine  sod  an  miht,  7.  For  examples  referring  to  Christ  see 
260. 

229.  Gifnes,  favor,  mercy,  occurs  only  rarely.  The  examples  are, 
biddad  sodfcestne  god  /  are  and  gifnesse  ealre  peode,  L.  Prayer  III,  55,  simi- 
larly are  and  gifnes,  110;  Ac  alys  us  of  yfelel  ealle  we  bepurfon  /  godes  gif- 
nesse, 114,  all  the  examples  probably  referring  to  Christ.  In  much  the 
same  sense  forgifnes  is  used,  as,  (Christ  gives)  his  forgifnesse  guman  to 
helpe,  Cr.  427,  but  in pu for gifnesse  hcefst  gearugne  timan  {veniae  tempus,  34), 
Doom  68,  similarly  91,  the  meaning  is  rather  forgiveness.  The  verbs 
gifan,  dgifan,  and  forgifan  are  common.  Of  forgifan  in  the  sense  of  to 
remit  we  note,  Forgyf  us,  .  .  .  gyltas  and  synna  /  and  tire  leahtras  alet, 
L.  Prayer  II,  19,  forgef  me,  sceppen  min  (Christ),  Ps.  L.  45,  adilga  min 
unriht  /  to  forgefenesse  gast  minum,  36-7.  As  shown  in  the  example  above, 
aldetan  in  the  sense  of  to  forgive  occurs,  also  forlcttan,  e.g.,  unriht  pu  forlete 
(remisisti  iniquitatem) ,  Ps.  LXXXIV,  2;  expressing  an  act  on  the  part  of 
man,  we  note,  swa  swa  we  forlcetad  leahtras  on  eorpan,  /  pam  pe  wid  us  oft 
agyltad,  L.  Prayer  II,  23. 

230.  Ar,  I.,  in  the  sense  of  favor,  mercy,  is  frequently  found.  Cymed 
him  seo  ar  of  heofonum,  Seaf.  107,  are  and  gifnes,  L.  Prayer  II,  110,  Forgif 
me  to  are,  celmihtig  god,  /  leoht  on  pis  sum  life,  And.  76,  ponne  ic  minre  sawle 
swegles  bidde,  /  ece  are,  Prayer  III,  4,  arum  bewunden,  Soul  141,  etc. 
Closely  related  to  ar  is  are,  f.,  used  for  instance,  Us  is  pinra  arna  pearf, 
Cr.  255,  ponne  arna  bipearf,  Jul.  715,  arena  ic  me  bidde,  Charm  I,  25,  etc. 

231.  Hyldo,  f.,  favor,  is  found  frequently.  We  note  only,  metodes 
hyldo,  Beow.  670,  pa  heo  ahte  mceste  pearf e  /  hyldo  pees  hehstan  deman,  Jud. 
4,  hyldo  dine  {miser  icordiae) ,  Ps.  LXXVIII,  8.  Hyld,  m.,  in  the  sense  of 
protection,  favor,  we  have,  halige  heapas  on  hild  godes,  Ex.  568,  halgum 
gas  turn,  pe  his  hyld  curon,  Dan.  481,  etc. 

232.  Mundbyrd,  f.,  protection,  occurs  several  times,  as,  heo  "dar  da 
gearwe  funde  I  mundbyrd  cet  dam  mceran  peodne,  Jud.  3,  ic  pe  fride  healde,  / 
minre  mundbyrde  mccgene  besette,  And.  1433,  etc. 

233.  Frofor,  consolation,  is  extremely  common.  Him  fr  of  re  gehet,  Jul. 
639 ,  frofre  findan  (at  Judgment),  Cr.  801,  hcebbe  ic  ponne  /  cet  frean  frofre, 
Prayer  IV,  47.  The  Holy  Spirit  is  frofre  gast,  which  is  also  applied  to  God 
and  Christ.  Referring  to  the  latter,  we  have,  poet  is  frofre  gast  hceleda  cynne, 
And.  906,  Du  eart  on  heofonum  hiht  and  frofor,  /  blissa  beorhtost,  L.  Prayer 
III,  9.  Heah  higefrofre,  Dox.  13,  may  not  refer  to  the  Son,  but  to  halig 
gast  immediately  following,  while  in  line  8  it  is  said  of  the  first  person, 


76  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [76 

pu  eart  frofra  feeder.  '  We  note  further  Beow.  698,  where  God  gives  frofor 
and  fultum,  and  Men.  226-8,  feeder  engla  /  his  sunu  sende  on  pas  sidan 
ge  see  aft  /  f oleum  to  fr  of  re,  similar  statements  occurring  often.  We  have 
also,  pa  me  pine  frofre  fcegere,  drihten,  gesibbedan  sawle  mine  [consolationes 
tuae  laetificaverunt  animam  meam),  Ps.  XCIII,  18. 

234.  Milds,  milts,  f.,  mercy,  compassion,  is  very  common,  used  of  both 
God  and  Christ,  pe  sie  ealles  pone  /  meorda  and  miltsa,  para  pu  me  seal- 
dest,  Prayer  IV,  67,  nergende  cyning,  /  meotud,  for  pinre  miltse,  50,  Oft  him 
anhaga  are  gebided,  /  metudes  miltse,  Wand.  2.  Of  Christ,  peer  is  help 
gearu,  /  milts,  And.  908,  pu  miltse  on  us  /  gecyd,  Cr.  156,  pine  miltse  her  / 
arfeest  ywe,  244,  ealra  pinra  mildsa  /  .  .  .  fremde  weordan,  L.  Prayer  II, 
29,  biddan  wylle  /  miltse  pinre,  Jud.  85.  Referring  to  God,  for  meenigeo 
miltsa  pinra  (multitudinem  miser ationum  tuarum),  Ps.  LXVIII,  16,  eefler 
his  miltsa  menigu  godes  (secundum  multitudinem  misericordiae  suae),  CV, 
34,  peet  eow  mihtig  god  miltse  gecydde,  Ex.  292,  pect  we  gesine  ne  syn  godes 
peodscipes,  /  metodes  miltsa,  529,  etc.  Mildsian  and  gemildsian  are  rather 
common.  We  note  only,  (Christ)  mildsa  nu,  meahtig,  manna  cynne, 
Hymn  33,  He  pinum  mandeedum  miltsade  eallum  (cui  propitiatur  omnibus 
iniquitatibus  tuts),  Ps.  CII,  3. 

235.  Lis,  lids,  f.,  grace,  favor,  is  often  used.  Eow  Uffrean  lissa  bidde, 
Ex.  271,  Us  is  lissa  pearf  /  peet  pu  us  ahredde,  Cr.  373,  pancode  swide  /  lifes 
leohtfruman  lisse  and  ara,  Gen.  1889,  etc.,  etc. 

236.  Fri~d,  mn.,  peace,  protection,  fairly  frequent.  On  frifie  drihtnes, 
Dan.  438,  ac  him  frid  drihtnes  /  .  .  .  gescylde,  466,  on  frid  dryhtnes, 
And.  1034,  pone  halgan  heap  helpe  bidde,  /  f rides  and  fultomes,  Ap.  91,  etc. 
Freod,  f.,  favor,  peace,  not  very  frequent,  peer  bid  symle  gearu  /  freod 
unhwilen,  And.  1154,  etc.  Freodo,  f.,  peace,  favor,  security,  not  very  fre- 
quent. Utan  us  to  feeder  freopa  wilnian,  Cr.  773,  Ic  (Christ) .eow  freod o 
healde,  And.  336,  etc. 

237.  As  in  the  case  of  the  attributes  of  the  Deity,  this  list  is  not  intended 
to  be  exhaustive.  It  could  be  extended  considerablv  by  the  enumeration 
of  all  the  blessings  and  favors  bestowed  upon  man.  Little  would  be  gained 
by  such  a  procedure,  while  in  many  cases  it  would  involve  unnecessary 
repetition.  Therefore  only  the  more  important  and  characteristic  terms 
have  been  included  in  our  list. 

VII.     Christ 

238.  In  order  to  render  the  Hebrew  J?!)&'')  the  Greeks  either  adopted 
IrjcroO;  or  translated  it  by  ocottip,  while  Latin  similarly  has  Jesus  and  salva- 


77]  THE  DEITY  77 

tor.  OHG.  and  ON.37  follow  these  languages  in  using  both  the  proper  name 
and  a  translation,  but  OE.  employs  only  a  translation,  namely  heel  end, 
substantive  form  of  the  past  participle  of  hcelan,  OS.  having  heland,  OHG. 
hellant,  all  of  which  go  back  to  the  OTeut.  *hailjan,  to  heal,  save.38  Regard- 
ing the  giving  of  the  name  it  is  said  Men.  4,  (Crist  wees  acennyd,  1)  on  py 
eahteodan  deeg  /  heelend  gehaten  heofonrices  weard.  The  name  is  rather 
frequent  in  the  poetry.  We  note  only,  poet  fin  heelend  eart  /  middangeardes, 
El.  808-9,  du  eart  sigefest  sunu  and  soft  helend,  Hymn  16,  heelend,  Ph.  650, 
Judg.  64,  se  gehalgoda  heelend,  Cr.  435,  drihten  heelend,  Sat.  219,  Prayer  III, 
24,  similarly  And.  541;  heelend  god,  Cr.  383,  Sat.  493,  Prayer  III,  9.  We 
also  find  the  juxtaposition  heelend  Crist,  Cr.  358,  as  also  the  combination 
halende  Crist,  250,  Ph.  590. 

239.  However,  much  more  common  is  Crist,39  used  in  the  poetry  as  a 
proper  name,  though  crlst  in  its  etymological  sense  occurs  a  few  times  in 
the  Psalms,  the  passages  to  be  discussed  in  243.  The  Old  Testament 
employs  TWJ12i  tne  anointed  one,  in  order  to  designate  the  promised 
Messiah,  while  the  New  Testament  either  adopts  the  term  as  Mecaias 
or  translates  it  by  6  Xpioros.  Then  it  passes  into  Latin  as  Christus.  The 
other  Germanic  dialects  also  have  taken  over  the  word,  each  of  course 
subjecting  it  to  its  sound  laws.40 

240.  We  note  a  few  examples  of  the  exceedingly  frequent  term,  the 
quotations  given  emphasizing  by  a  modifier  the  peculiar  function  attri- 
buted. Nergendne  Crist,  Sat.  346,  nergende  Crist,  Gu.  570,  Sat.  570, 
neriende  Crist,  L.  Prayer  II,  4,  with  a  change  in  the  word  order,  Crist  / 
nergend,  Hymn  39,  Crist  nergende,  Cr.  157,  Crist  nerigende,  L.  Prayer  II, 
28.  Here  may  also  be  noted  such  occurrences  as  waldend  Crist,  Doom  52, 
pone  ahangnan  Crist,  El.  797,  etc. 

241.  In  OE.  poetry  Christ  occupies  a  very  prominent  place,  appearing 
also  in  poems  dealing  with  the  Old  Testament  history,  as,  sod  sunu  metodes, 
sawla  nergend,  Dan.  402,  Crist  cyning,  Az.  103,  pone  sofian  sunu,  157,  ac  hy 
Crist  scilde,  165. 

37  Regarding  terms  etc.  referring  to  Christ  in  OHG.  compare  Raumer,  p.  354  ff.,  for  ON. 
see  Kahle,  I,  382  ff.,  II,  129  ff. 

38  Raumer,  p.  355  ff.,  NED.  under  healend. 

39  Kluge,  Paul's  Grundriss,  2.  Aufiage,  I,  p.  929,  remarks:  "Audi  das  I  von  ae.  Crist 
deutet  im  Zusammenhange  mit  der  eben  vorgefiihrten  kirchlichen  Terminologie  auf  air. 
Crist,"  but  p.  359,  Anm.:  "Das  Wort  Christus  haben  die  Germanen  in  der  lateinisch- 
romanischen  Form  Cristus  als  angels.  Crist  ubernommen. "  See  also  MacG.,  p.  19,  and  p.  20, 
note  1,  Morsbach's  remark  on  MacG.'s  note  that  he  has  never  found  in  the  MSS.  any  marks  of 
length  in  the  case  of  derivatives,  "If  this  is  really  the  case,  we  may  assume  shortness  of  vowel 
in  O.E.  Crist,  cristen,  &c.  and  explain  the  M.E.  and  N.E.  lengthenings  through  French 
influence. " 

40  Raumer,  pp.  359-60. 


78  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [78 

242.  A  peculiar  phenomenon  is  to  be  noticed  in  the  Psalms.  In  Ps. 
L.  (Cottoniana)  Christ  seems  to  have  occupied  the  place  of  God.  His  name 
is  inserted,  though  there  is  not  the  slightest  warrant  for  it  in  the  Vulgate. 
David  is  called  Criste  liofost,  line  3,  to  whom  he  also  prays,  (ic)  helende 
Crist  helpe  bidde,  50.  In  126  we  have  lifiende  Crist,  which  is  entirely  on  a 
par  with  god  lifiende,  134,  etc.,  and  similar  terms.  The  Savior  is  addressed 
dryhten  Crist,  line  88.  The  other  occurrences  are,  pat  hio  cerrende  Criste 
herdon,  56,  ponne  ic  geclansod  Criste  hero,  74,  and  mefitig  god  mannum  to 
frofre  /  15ces  cynedomes  Crist  neriende  /  waldende  god  weordne  munde,  149. 

243.  In  the  other  Psalms  a  similar  fact  may  be  observed,  though  per- 
haps it  is  less  striking  on  account  of  the  isolated  cases.  A  few  times  the 
word  is  used  in  the  sense  of  anointed,  rendering  the  Latin  christus.  Thus, 
oncnaw  onsyne  cristes  pines  (respice  in  faciem  christi  tui),  LXXXIII,  9; 
applied  to  David,  pu  ponne  widsoce  sopum  criste  and  hine  forhogodest 
(distulisti  christum  tuum),  LXXXVIII,  32,  similarly  faste  atwitafi  and 
pat  pinum  criste  becwepafi  swide  (christi  tui) ,  44,  as  also  here  for  minum 
criste  gecorenum  (christo  meo),  CXXXI,  18.  While  there  is  thus  a  warrant 
in  the  Vulgate  for  the  OE.  rendering,  the  same  cannot  be  said  of  the  other 
occurrences.  The  author  of  the  poetic  version  of  the  Psalms  has  in  a 
characteristic  manner  transferred  Christ  to  the  Old  Testament.  We  read, 
on  ciricean  Crist  drihten  god  bealde  bletsige  (In  ecclesiis  benedicite  Deo 
Domino),  LXVII,  24,  and  gecyr  us  georne  to  fie,  Crist  almihtig,  LXXXIV, 
5,  renders  Converte  nos  Deus  salutaris  noster.  Halynde  Crist  has  been 
inserted  CVIII,  25,  being  on  a  par  with  drihten  god  just  preceding.  We 
note,  do  me  cufilice  halne,  heahcyning,  heofona  wealdend,  hcelende  Crist, 
CXVIII,  146,  the  passage  showing  the  synonyms.  In  CXXXIII,  2,  and 
CXXXIV,  2,  Dei  is  rendered  by  Cristes,  for  we  read  on  cafertunum  Cristes 
huses  (in  atriis  domus  Dei  nostri).  Finally,  on  cyrcean  cristenes  folces,  CVI, 
31,  renders  in  ecclesia  plebis. 

244.  In  addition  to  halend  and  Crist,  the  term  Emmanuhel  is  once 
applied  to  Christ,  Cr.  132. 

245.  At  this  point  we  shall  take  up  the  life  of  Christ  during  his  sojourn 
on  the  earth,  the  work  of  redemption  and  reconciliation,  followed  by  a 
discussion  of  the  names  and  figures  which  are  applied  to  him. 

246.  All  the  important  phases  of  Christ's  life  upon  the  earth  are  treated 
in  the  poetry  to  a  greater  or  less  extent.  Only  the  main  points  will  be 
considered  by  us.  His  coming  to  the  earth  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  the 
sending  of  God,  Men.  226-7,  at  other  times  as  Christ's  decision  and  will 
to  become  man,  pu  fore  monna  lufan  pinre  modor  bosm  /  sylfa  gesohtes, 
sigedrihten  god,  Har.  110-11,  similarly  Ap.  27-8,  Cr.  445-6,  etc.  He  was 
conceived  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  peer  halig  gast  handgift  sealde  /  pare  famnan, 


79]  THE  DEITY  79 

Creed  18,  and  Invocation  13  tells  that  Christ  was  born  (purh  Marian,  12) 
purh  pcene  halgan  gast.  No  specific  word  for  the  L.  incarnatio  appears, 
which  is  paraphrased,  as  for  instance,  nu  eft  geweard  /  flcesc  firena  leas, 
Cr.  122-3,  etc.  Eacnung,  properly  increase,  is  once  used  for  conception, 
Cr.  75.  Christ's  sinlessness  is  often  referred  to,  so  especially  regarding 
his  conception  and  birth,  mennisc  hiw  /  onfeng  butan  firenum,  Cr.  721-2, 
onfeng  at  famnan  flcesc  unwemme,  418,  he  of  adelre  wees  uirginis  partu  / 
clcene  acenned  Christus  in  orbem,  Invocation  10-11,  etc.,  God  wees  mid  us  / 
gesewen  butan  synnum,  Cr.  124-5,  sunu  synna  leas,  El.  777,  etc.  The  birth- 
place is  mentioned  several  times,  so  Charm  V,  A,  3,  Badleem  hatte  seo 
buruh,  pe  Crist  acanned  wees,  similarly  Creed  23-4;  Charm  V,  B,  3,  Bethlem 
hatta  seo  burh,  de  Crist  on  geboren  wes.  Mary,  his  mother,  is  often  men- 
tioned, as  for  instance,  his  modor  eac  Marian  sylfe  /  almihtig  god,  Rood  B, 
92-3,  etc.  To  Christ's  life  in  Nazareth  refers  El.  912-13,  se  de  in  Nazared 
afeded  was.u 

247.  Of  other  events  in  the  life  of  Christ  may  be  mentioned  the  betrayal 
of  Judas,  to  which  a  reference  is  found  Sat.  575-6,  {Judas)  se  de  cer  on  tifre 
torhtne  gesalde  /  drihten  hcelend. 

248.  Very  many  references  are  made  to  the  suffering,  the  passion  of 
Christ.  The  term  used  is  prowung,  which  occurs  a  few  times,  frean  pro- 
winga,  Cr.  1130,  dryhtnes  prowinga,  1180,  purh  his  prowinga,  470,  and 
dinra  drowunga,  Hymn  28.  The  verb  is  prowian,  e.g.,  Da  se  Pontisca 
Pilatus  weold  /  .  .  .  /  pa  se  deorafrea  dead  prow ade,  Creed  27,  etc.  polian 
is  also  used,  as,  (on  the  cross)  wite  polade,  Cr.  1452.  Among  other  things 
we  note  the  crown  of  thorns,  mentioned  twice  in  Christ,  ymb  his  heafod 
heardne  gebigdon  /  beag  pyrn&nne,  1126-7,  and  pa  hi  hwcesne  beag  /  ymb 
min  heafod  heardne  gebygdon,  /  pream  biprycton,  se  wees  of  pornum  geworht, 
1444-6.  The  crucifixion  itself,  for  which  no  noun  is  encountered,  takes 
place  on  Calurie,  El.  672,  cefter  stedewange,  hwcer  seo  stow  sie/  Calurie,  675-6, 
on  pa  dune,  717,  of  dam  wangstede,  793.  Hon  and  dhon,  to  suspend,  are 
used  in  the  sense  of  to  crucify,  thus,  (godes  agen  beam)  purh  hete  hengon  on 
heanne  beam,  El.  424,  dhon  being  more  common,  hwcer  ahangen  wees  .  .  .  / 
on  rode  treo  rodera  waldend,  El.  205-6,  pcet  hie  god  sylfne  /  ahengon,  209-10, 
Pilatus  eer  on  rode  aheng  rodera  waldend,  Jul.  305,  etc.  It  is  said  that  the 
crucifixion  took  place  with  the  consent  of  the  Father,  (prowode)  meotud 
on  galgan  /  be  feeder  leafe,  Men.  86-7. 

249.  The  word  for  cross  is  rod,  also  treo  etc.  It  should  be  noticed  that 
galga  is  often  used  interchangeably  with  rod,  treo,  etc.  The  Anglo-Saxons, 
being  unacquainted  with  crucifixion,  substituted  the  term  for  hanging.42 

41  Curiously  enough,  Grein,  Dichtungen,  p.  128,  translates,  "der  geboren  war  in  Naza- 
reth." 

42  For  OHG.  see  Raumer,  p.  362,  and  note  15,  p.  363,  where  he  remarks:  "Im  Gothischen 
ist  galga  der  gewohnliche  Ausdruck  fur  aravpos. "    For  ON.  compare  Kahle,  II,  p.  145  f. 


80  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [80 

So  we  have  for  instance,  pa  ic  mid  Judeum  gealgan  pehte,  /  rod  was  arared, 
And.  966-7,  hine  rode  befealg,  /pat  he  on  gealgan  his  gast  onsende,  1326-7. 
In  Elene  especially  galga  occurs  frequently,  e.g.,  hu  on  galgan  wear15  godes 
agen  beam  /  ahangen,  179.  At  other  times  we  have  rod,  not  infrequently 
both  terms  occurring  in  the  same  sentence.  The  same  fact  may  be  observed 
where  the  crucifixion  of  others  than  Christ  is  related,  as,  Sume  ic  rode 
befealh,  /pat  hi  hyra  dreorge  on  hean  galgan  /  lif  aletan,  Jul.  481-3.  Here 
a  few  further  occurrences  of  the  frequent  term  galga  may  be  given.  On 
galgum,  Sat.  511,  on  galgan,  550,  he  wolde  on  galgu  gestiga,  Rood  A,  2,  on 
gealgan  heanne,  Rood  B,  40,  fracodes  galga,  10.  We  also  have  on  pam 
gealgtreowe,  146. 

250.  The  cross  is  mentioned  very  often  in  OE.  poetry,  a  whole  poem, 
Elene,  being  devoted  to  the  finding  of  the  cross  of  Christ,  while  the  Dream 
of  the  Rood  shows  how  important  a  part  the  cross  played  in  the  life  of  the 
people.43  Besides,  there  are  numerous  references  to  it  in  other  poems. 
We  are  told  that  St.  Guthlac  him  to  atstalle  cerest  ararde,  /  Cristes  rode,  150- 
1,  at  the  Judgment  there  is  seo  hea  rod,  Cr.  1065,  mentioned  also  1085  ff., 
1102,  rincas  at  pare  rode,  Judg.  105.  In  the  Dream  of  the  Rood  the  invoca- 
tion of  the  cross  is  plainly  shown,  gebiddap  him  to  pyssum  beacne,  B,  83, 
Gebced  ic  me  pa  to  pan  beame,  122,  ac  durh  da  rode  sceal  rice  gesecan  /  of 
eardwege  aghwyle  sawl,  119-20.  We  have  a  compound  in  hiera  winrod 
lixan,  I  sodfastra  segn,  Sal.  235. 

251.  In  order  to  show  the  wealth  of  expressions  for  the  cross,  we  note 
the  more  important  kennings.44 

252.  Rod,  f.,  originally  having  the  sense  of  L.  virga,  pertica,  is  used  in 
OE.  poetry  for  cross.  Sio  halige  rod,  El.  720,  1011,  1223,  sio  reade  rod,  Cr. 
1102,  pare  deorestan  dagweordunga  /  rode  under  roderum,  El.  1233-4, 
dryhtnes  rod,  Rood  B,  136,  afielcyninges  rod,  El.  219,  Cristes  rode,  103,  And. 
1337. 

253.  Trio,  n.  pat  halige  treo,  El.  107,  442,  701,  840,  etc.,  pat  halige 
triow  I  dinre  "drowunga,  Hymn  27-8,  pat  wlitige  treo,  El.  165,  syllicre  treow, 
Rood  B,  4,  pat  mare  treo,  El.  214;  halendes  treow,  Rood  B,  25,  wuldres  treo, 
El.  827,  866,  similarly  1251,  Rood  B,  14;  lifes  treow,  El.  664,  similarly  706, 
1026;  wealdes  treow,  Rood  B,  17,  on  rode  treowe,  Ph.  643,  on  rode  treo,  El. 
206,  855,  Jul.  447,  his  rode  treo,  El.  147. 

254.  Beam  is  also  fairly  common.  On  heanne  beam,  El.  424,  ic  was 
ahongen  on  heanne  beam  /  rode  gefastnad,  Cr.  1447,  pone  afielan  beam,  El. 
1073,  apelust  beama,  Men.  84,  pone  halgan  beam,  Cr.  1094,  on  fid  blacne 

43  Regarding  the  place  of  the  cross  among  the  Anglo-Saxons  and  its  veneration,  see 
Stevens,  W.  O.,  The  Cross  in  the  Life  and  Literature  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  New  York,  1904. 

44  A  few  are  given  by  Bode,  Kenningar,  pp.  86-7.    Rankin  names  some  IX,  p.  62. 


81]  THE  DEITY  81 

beam  bundan  fceste,  Judg.  66,  se  leohta  beam,  Cr.  1090,  pone  beorhtan  beam, 
El.  1254,  beama  beorhtost,  Rood  B,  6,  mcerost  beama,  El.  1012,  1224,  also 
se  wuldres  beam,  El.  217.  Of  compounds  we  note  sigebeam,  Rood  B,  13, 
in  the  dat.  sing.,  El.  420,  444,  860,  sigebeamas  .III.,  El.  846,  selest  sigebeama, 
1027.  Regarding  the  cross  Constantine  saw  in  the  dream  it  is  said,  Geseah 
he  frcetwum  beorht  /  wliti  wuldres  treo  ofer  wolcna  hrof,  /  golde  geglengefi : 
gimmas  lixtan;  /  wees  se  blaca  beam  bocstafum  awriten  /  beorhte  ond  leohte, 
El.  88-92.    This  serves  as  the  pattern  of  the  cross  he  causes  to  be  made. 

255.  Of  other  kennings  we  add  beacen,  sign,  pcet  fuse  beacen,  Rood 
B,  21,  beacna  beorhtast,  Cr.  1086,  beacna  selest,  Rood  B,  118,  beacen  godes, 
El.  109.  Of  compounds  sigebeacen  sod,  El.  887,  in  the  dat.  sing.  168,  665, 
1256,  selest  sigebeacna,  974,  sigorbeacen,  984.  Tdcen,  sign.  Meere  tacen, 
And.  1338,  tacna  torhtost,  El.  164,  sigores  tacen,  85.  In  El.  790  the  cross 
is  called  pcet  goldhord. 

256.  The  nails  of  the  cross  are  mentioned  several  times  in  Elene,  1064  ff. 
and  1112-14,  where  they  are  characterized,  swylce  heofonsteorran  /  ofide 
god  gimmas. 

257.  Christ's  descent  into  hell  receives  a  large  share  of  attention  in 
OE.  poetry,  one  whole  piece,  the  Harrowing  of  Hell,  being  entirely  devoted 
to  that  subject.  In  other  poems  it  is  also  mentioned.  No  specific  term  to 
denote  the  descent  has  been  encountered,  and  the  subject  need  not  detain 
us  here.  We  note  only,  ymb  preo  niht  com  pegen  hcelendes  /  ham  to  helle, 
Sat.  426-7. 

258.  Resurrection  is  expressed  by  cerist,  mfn.,  a  word  comparatively 
rare.  We  find,  drihtnes  cerist,  Men.  58,  ece  eelmihtig  cerist  gefremede,  Gu. 
1073,  pinum  ceriste,  Har.  121.  The  verb  is  arlsan.  The  resurrection  of 
Christ  is  variously  expressed,  thus,  pees  pe  drihten  god  of  deade  aras,  Sat. 
516,  he  py  priddan  dcege  /  .  .  .  lif  eft  onfeng  /  pur h  feeder  fultum,  Ph.  644-6, 
du  of  deafie  hine  /  swa  prymlice,  peoda  waldend,  /  aweahte  for  weorodum, 
El.  779-81,  open  wees  pcet  eorficern,  cepelinges  lie  /  onfeng  feores  gcest,  Har. 
19-20,  hagosteald  onwoc  /  modig  from  moldan,  21-2. 

259.  In  order  to  express  ascension  we  have  once  only  stlge,  m.,  drihtnes 
stige  J  on  heofonas  up,  Men.  64.  Upstige  is  also  rare,  cet  his  upstige,  Cr. 
615,  cefter  upstige  ecan  dryhtnes,  711.  A  number  of  times  the  verb  is 
employed,  Gesegon  hi  on  heahpu  hlaford  stigan,  /  godbearn  of  grundum,  Cr. 
498,  etc.,  cerpon  upstige  ancenned  sunu,  464. 

260.  Christ  says,  da  mec  ongon  hreowan  (that  man  should  be  lost),  Cr. 
1415,  and  pa  me  gereaw,  pcet  min  handgeweorc  /  carcernes  clom  drowade, 
Sat.  489-90.  Redemption  was  the  purpose  of  his  work  upon  earth.  To 
that  end  he  performed  miracles,  wundor,  pa  pe  worhte  weoroda  dryhten  /  to 


82  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [82 

feorhnere  fira  cynne,  El.  896-7.  The  subject  of  wundor  is  treated  at  some 
length  And.  569  ff .  This  work  of  redemption,  mainly  accomplished  through 
vicarious  suffering,  is  expressed  in  different  ways.  It  is  suffering  for  the 
sins  of  mankind,  pas  he  on  pone  halgan  beam  ahongen  wees  /fore  moncynnes 
manforwyrhtu,  Cr.  1094-5,  pat  he  for  alda  lufan  /  firenfremmendra  fela 
prowade,  1117-18,  se  Hie  almihtig  god  on  prowode  /  for  mancynnes  mane  gum 
synnum  /  and  Adomes  ealdgewyrhtum,  Rood  B,  98-100,  cer  prowode  /  on 
pam  gealgtreowe  for  guman  synnum,  145-6,  and  somewhat  varying,  peer  he 
earfepu  /  gepolade  fore  pearfe  peodbuendra,  Cr.  1172-5.  It  is  a  saving,  a 
rescuing  from  sin,  devil,  and  hell,  nerian,  generian,  lysan  and  alysan  being 
used,  pat  hi  frea  nerede  /  fram  hellcwale  halgum  meahtum  /  alwalda  god, 
Cr.  1189-91,  pat  pu  of  deofles  purh  pat  /  nydgewalde  genered  wurde,  1450-51; 
pa  he  wolde  mancyn  lysan,  Rood  B,  41,  fram  ligewale  lysan  pohte,  El.  296, 
also  hu  se  sylfa  cyning  /  mid  sine  lichoman  lysde  of  firenum  (that  sinners 
might  live),  Cr.  1209-10,  alysde  leoda  beam  of  locan  deojla,  /  geomre  gastas, 
El.  181-2,  pe  ic  alysde  me  /  feondum  of  faff  me,  Cr.  1485-6,  and  pas  de  pu 
us  milde  mihtum  alysdest  /  fram  haftnyde  hellewites,  L.  Prayer  II,  35-6. 
Onlysan  and  tolysan  are  also  found. 

261.  Occasionally  redemption  is  represented  as  buying,  as  the  payment 
of  a  ransom.  Thus,  folc  generedes,  /  Mode  gebohtest  beam  Israela,  Hymn 
25-6,  (hafad  wulf)  pin  eowde  /  wide  towrecene,  pat  flu  waldend  ar  /  blode 
gebohtes,  Cr.  257-9,  and  pe  mine  deade  deore  gebohte  /  pat  longe  lif,  1463-4. 
Besides  byegan  and  gebyegan,  ceapian  is  also  found,  par  he  leoflice  lifes 
ceapode  /  .  .  .  /  mid  py  weor'Se,  pe  no  worn  dyde  /  his  lichoma  leahtra 
firena,  /  mid  py  usic  alysde,  Cr.  1096,  and  once  also  we  meet  with  gecypan, 
lif  pat  scyne,  /  pat  ic  pe  for  lufan  mid  mine  lichoman  J  heanum  to  helpe 
hold  gecypte,  1472. 

262.  Redemption  is  also  conceived  of  as  the  routing  of  the  devil,  as 
for  instance,  de  fiy  manscilde  middangeardes  /  for  pinre  arfe.stnesse  ealle 
towurpe,  I  fiond  geflamdest,  Hym  23-5. 

263.  It  was  the  object  of  Christ  to  effect  a  reconciliation  between  God 
and  man,  and  to  end  the  existing  enmity.  The  word  employed  is  gepingian, 
gepingade  peodbuendum  /  wid  fader  swasne  fahpa  maste  /  cyning  anboren, 
Cr.  616.  In  the  sense  of  to  reconcile  it  is  also  used  of  St.  Juliana,  pat  me 
seo  halge  wid  pone  hyhstan  cyning  /  gepingige,  Jul.  717.  It  may  also  denote 
intercession,  as  Cr.  342,  where  the  Virgin  Mary  is  emplored,  Gepinga  us 
nu  pristum  wordum.  .  .  .  pingian  is  also  employed  in  the  sense  of  inter- 
cession. Thus  it  is  said  of  Stephen,  ac  his  ealdfeondum  /  pingode  prohtherd, 
El.  494,  and  Christ  himself  remarks,  Ic  eow  pingade,  Sat.  509.  Applied  to 
David  we  have,  to  'dingienne  piodun  sinum,  Ps.  L.  7,  similarly  26  and  146. 

264.  Christ  is  god.    So  it  is  said  of  him,  pis  is  se  ilea  ealwalda  god,  / 


83]  THE  DEITY  83 

done  on  fyrndagum  fcederas  cudon,  And.  751-2,  being  directly  identified 
with  the  God  of  the  Old  Testament,  further,  pat  pu  eart  sylfa  god,  /  ece 
ordfruma  ealra  gesceafta,  Sat.  441,  pat  hie  god  sylfne  /  ahengon,  El.  209-10, 
God  was  mid  us  /  gesewen  butan  synnum,  Cr.  124-5,  Nu  is  rodera  weard  / 
god  sylfa  mid  us,  134-5,  etc.  We  add  a  few  terms  which  recall  passages 
from  the  Creeds  or  seem  to  be  approximations.  Swa  pu  god  of  gode  gearo 
acenned,  Cr.  109,  butan  anginne,  111,  efenece  mid  god,  122,  efeneardige  mid 
pinne  engan  frean,  237,  efenwesende  in  pam  apelan  ham,  350,  efenece  beam 
agnum  feeder,  465.  In  some  of  these  cases  the  attributes  are  applied  to  him 
though  at  the  same  time  he  is  called  the  Son. 

265.  A  number  of  kennings45  appear,  of  which  we  cite  the  more  charac- 
teristic. Nergende  god,  Cr.  361,  waldende  god,  1011,  lifigende  god,  273, 
similarly  L.  Prayer  III,  25;  god  lifigende,  And.  1409,  lifigende  god,  L.  Prayer 
III,  101,  mihtig  god,  Cr.  1008,  1171,  ozlmihtigne  god,  Rood  B,  60,  almihti 
god,  And.  260,  similarly  Rood  B,  92;  sodfastne  god,  L.  Prayer  III,  54,  simi- 
larly 115;  pone  ahangnan  god,  El.  687.  Drihten  god,  And.  1281,  Sat.  516, 
L.  Prayer  II,  18,  god  drihten,  And.  897,  gcesta  god,  Cr.  130,  engla  god,  L. 
Prayer  III,  122,  weoroda  god,  Cr.  407,  ealwalda  god,  And.  751,  925,  wealdend 
god,  El.  4. 

266.  Christ  is  the  sunu.  Sunu  meotodes,  Sat.  143,  173,  soft  sunu  meo- 
tudes,  El.  461,  haligne  godes  sunu,  Sat.  528,  beorhtne  sunu,  Cr.  205,  ancenned 
sunu,  464,  waldendes  sunu,  Sat.  119,  sunu  sopan  feeder,  Cr.  110.  Godes 
gastsunu,  El.  673,  similarly  Cr.  660,  861. 

267.  Another  term  used  is  beam,*6  very  frequent  with  godes,  metodes, 
waldendes,  etc.  Godes  agen  beam,  Sat.  10,  godes  ece  beam,  And.  747, 
efenece  beam,  Cr.  465,  efeneadig  beam,  Hymn  21,  adelust  bearna,  El.  476, 
da  beorhtan  beam,  782.  Godbeam,  And.  640,  Cr.  499,  682,  702,  etc.,  simi- 
larly Ph.  647;  frumbeam,  Cr.  507,  frumbeam  godes,  Sat.  470,  freobeam, 
Creed  43,  freobeam  godes,  Sat.  289,  Cr.  643,  788,  cyninges  freobeam,  El.  672, 
rodera  weard  /  at  frymffe  genom  him  to  freobeame,  Cr.  223,  cynebeam,  And. 
566,  cynebeam  gecydd  cwycum  and  deadum,  /  apele  and  ece  ofer  ealle  pingc, 
L.  Prayer  III,  117,  wuldres  cynebeam,  Men.  159/  halubeam,  Cr.  586, 
hcelobeam,  754,  sigebeam  godes,  El.  481,  862,  Har.  32,  etc.,  celmihtig  / 
sigebeam  godes,  El.  1146. 

268.  In  order  to  emphasize  both  the  human  and  the  divine  nature  in 

46  Bode  in  his  Kenningar,  p.  79  ff.,  has  included  those  belonging  to  the  Son  in  the  ken- 
nings for  "Gott,"  so  that  only  in  a  few  cases  one  is  able  to  make  any  distinction.  Rankin, 
Kennings,  may  be  compared  under  headings  such  as  "God  as  Son,"  "God  as  Savior,"  etc. 
He  also  does  not  clearly  distinguish  between  the  persons. 

46  Rankin,  Kennings,  VIII,  p.  419,  remarks:  "It  is  noteworthy  that  beam  occurs  far 
more  frequently  than  sunu,  which  apparently  was  a  word  of  more  commonplace  and  prosaic 
connotation. " 


84  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [84 

Christ,  the  author  of  the  Christ  states  that  fact  in  {somod  eardedon)  mihtig 
meotudes  beam  and  se  tnonnes  sunu,  126. 

269.  Although  Christ  is  the  Son,  he  is  also  a  few  times  identified  with 
the  Father.  Thus,  feeder  frumsceafta,  Cr.  472,  pa  he  on  rode  astag,  /feeder, 
frofre  gcest,  728,  (ponne  Crist  sited,  etc.)  on  heahsetle  heofonmagna  god,  / 
feeder  celmihtig,  1219.  He  is  also  called  feeder  mancynnes,  And.  1465,  Ap.  29, 
feeder  folca  gehwees,  And.  330,  frumweorca  feeder,  And.  804.  Curiously- 
enough,  we  find  in  L.  Prayer  III,  42-3,  the  bold  statement,  pu  eart  sunu  and 
feeder  /  ana  cegper. 

270.  Christ  dwelt  before  his  incarnation  with  the  Father  in  glory. 
Ic  wolde  towerpan  wuldres  leoman,  /  beam  helendes,  Sat.  85-6,  and  dees  ic 
wolde  of  selde  sunu  meotodes,  /  drihten  adrifian,  173-4,  the  chief  of  the  fallen 
angels  confesses,  but  Crist  heo  afirde,  67.  He  took  part  in  the  creation, 
as  it  is  said  of  him,  pu  eart  seo  snyttro,pepas  sidan  gesceaft  /  mid  pi  waldende 
worhtes  ealle,  Cr.  239-40,  and  he  himself  says,  Snotre  gastasl  /  ic  eow  purh 
mine  mihte  geworhte,  Sat.  471-2.  Such  statements  as  the  following  also 
occur,  waldend  and  wyrhta  wuldorprymmes ,  /  an  ece  god  eallra  gesceafta, 
And.  702-3,  ah  him  alles  gewald,  /  wuldres  and  wita  waldendes  sunu,  Sat. 
118-9,  pcet  he  ana  is  ealra  gescefta  /  wyrhta  and  waldend  purh  his  wuldres 
crceft,  584-5.  Thus  Christ  is  scyppend,  a  term  frequently  applied  to  him. 
We  note  such  phrases  as  scippend  ealra,  El.  370,  ealra  worulda  scippend, 
Prayer  III,  23,  gasta  scyppend,  Sat.  244,  engla  scippend,  And.  278,  similarly 
Sat.  535,  563;  hcelepa  scyppend,  Cr.  266,  moncynnes  milde  scyppend,  417, 
manna  scyppend,  And.  486,  similarly  Har.  109;  scyppend  wera,  And. 
787,  etc. 

271.  Fruma  is  not  infrequently  found.  Fymweorca  fruma,  Cr.  579, 
ealles  folces  fruma,  Har.  29,  41,  ealra  folca  fruma,  Cr.  516;  ece  eadfruma, 
532,  lifes  leohtfruma,  Gu.  565,  And.  387,  liffruma,  El.  335,  And.  1284,  etc., 
torhtes  tirfruman,  Cr.  206,  engla  ordfruma,  Sat.  659,  Ap.  28,  cepelne  ord- 
fruman  ealra  gesceafta,  Cr.  402,  eades  ordfruma,  1199,  dugu'Sa  dcedfruma, 
And.  75. 

272.  Metod,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Father,  is  extremely  frequent,  practi- 
cally the  same  kennings  being  employed  for  each.  Middangeardes  meoiud, 
Judg.  65,  mcegencyninga  meotud,  Cr.  943,  meotud  mancynnes ,  And.  69,  446, 
Sat.  515,  etc.,  etc. 

273.  Cyning  is  very  common.  We  note  only,  pone  ahangnan  cyning, 
El.  453,  933,  ahof  ic  ricne  cyning,  /  heofona  hlaford,  Rood  B,  44,  cyning 
anboren,  El.  392,  Cr.  618,  Israhela  cining,  El.  799,  cining  cwicera  gehwees, 
And.  912,  hcelepa  cyning,  Cr.  372,  ealra  kyninga  kyning,  Crist  lifiend,  Prayer 
III,  22,  similarly  Sat.  205,  And.  978,  Jul.  289,  Cr.  136,  215,  etc.;  repust 
ealra  cyninga,  Har.  36,  selast  ealra  cyninga,  117,  cyninga  wuldor,  El.  5. 


85]  THE  DEITY  85 

Wuldorcyning,  Sat.  115,  weoroda  wuldorcyning,  Cr.  161,  heofena  heah- 
cyning,  L.  Prayer  II,  15,  similarly  Cr.  1340;  heofena  heahkyning,  Prayer 
III,  50,  heofenes  heahcyning,  Cr.  150,  rodorcyninges,  El.  886,  Cr.  727, 
adelcyninges,  El.  219,  pryflcining,  And.  436,  sigora  sodcyning,  Cr.  1229. 

274.  Twice  we  have  encountered  cdsere  and  once  rex.  pu  gewurdod 
eart  /  on  heofonrice,  heah  casere,  L.  Prayer  III,  60,  caseres  lof,  Ph.  634. 
Him  weard  ece  rex,  /  meotud  milde,  god  mihla  waldend,  El.  1042. 

275.  Dryhten  is  very  frequent  as  an  appellation  of  the  Son.  A  few  of 
the  large  number  of  examples  may  find  a  place  here.  Dryhten  ealra,  El. 
187,  dryhten  hcelend,  And.  1407,  dryhtna  drihten,  874,  dryhtna  dryhten,  Cr. 
405.  Of  compounds  we  note  only  freodrihten,  Sat.  547,  sod  sigedrihten, 
L.  Prayer  II,  34. 

276.  Frea  is  very  frequent.  Frea  moncynnes,  Har.  33,  etc.,  waldend 
frea,  Cr.  328,  sod  sigora  frea,  El.  488,  fyrnweorca  frea,  And.  1410,  frea  folca 
gehwces,  Hymn  20;  liffrea,  Cr.  15,  27,  etc.,  heofona  heahfrea,  253,  424. 

277.  peoden  is  not  very  frequent,  peoden,  And.  696,  rice  peoden,  And. 
364,  415,  peoden  prymfcest,  323,  prymfcest  peoden,  Cr.  944,  And.  323,  engla 
peoden,  Cr.  791,  290,  900. 

278.  Wealdend  and  weard  are  frequently  found,  while  hldford  seems 
more  often  applied  to  Christ  than  to  the  Father.  Hlaford,  Cr.  498,  rede 
and  rihtwis,  rumheort  hlaford,  L.  Prayer  III,  63,  hlaford  eallra,  /  engla  and 
elda,  El.  475-6,  heofona  hlaford,  Rood  B,  45. 

279.  JEdeling  is  sometimes  applied  to  Christ.  Aipeling,  Cr.  448,  wul- 
dres  (Bpeling,  Cr.  158,  cedelinges  lie,  Har.  3,  19,  cepelinga  ord,  Cr.  515, 
adelinga  ord,  El.  393,  etc. 

280.  Agend,  not  very  frequent.  Sigores  agend,  Cr.  420,  513,  lifes  agend, 
471,  swegles  agend,  543,  wuldres  agend,  1198. 

281.  Helm.  Helm  wera,  El.  475,  helm  alwihta,  Cr.  274,  410,  adelinga 
helm,  And.  277,  623,  655,  haligra  helm,  Cr.  529,  heofona  helm,  Har.  34, 
heofonrices  helm,  Cr.  566,  etc. 

282.  Hyrde.  Halig  hyrde,  Gu.  761,  j 'ram  gebyrdtide  bremes  cinges,  / 
leohta  hyrdes,  Chr.  Ill,  A,  12,  prymmes  hyrde,  El.  858,  rices  hyrde,  And.  807. 

283.  Ldreow,  a  number  of  times.  Lareow,  And.  1321,  lifes  lareow, 
1466,  boca  lareow,  Dox.  12. 

284.  Latteow,  a.  few  times.  Lifes  lattiow,  El.  520,  898,  pees  latteowes 
larum  hyre,  Gu.  335,  etc. 


86  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [86 

285.  Compounds  of  giefa.  Sawla  symbolgifa,  And.  1417,  weoruda 
wuldorgiefa,  Har.  42,  engla  eadgifa,  And.  74,  451,  eorla  eadgiefan,  Cr.  546, 
weoruda  willgeofa,  And.  1282,  weoroda  willgija,  El.  814,  hyra  wilgijan,  Cr. 
537,  hyra  sincgiefan,  460,  j oka  feorhgiej 'an,  556,  beorht  bloedgija,  And.  656, 
hceleda  hyhtgifa,  El.  851. 

286.  Geocend,  not  very  frequent.  Gasta  geocend,  And.  548,  901,  El. 
682,  1076,  Cr.  198. 

287.  Nergend,  very  frequent.  Nerigend  fira,  El.  1077,  neregend  fira, 
And.  291,  sawla  nergend,  And.  549,  921,  Cr.  571,  El.  461,  79S,  folca  nergend, 
Cr.  426,  nida  nergend,  Hymn  35. 

288.  Dema,  a  number  of  times.  -Qu  ana  hist  eallra  dema,  /  cwucra  ge 
deadra,  Crist  nergend,  Hymn  38-9,  rihtwis  dema,  L.  Prayer  III,  28,  sodfcest 
dema,  37,  121;  se  sigedema,  And.  661,  etc. 

289.  Of  metaphors  and  figures  applied  to  Christ  the  most  important 
have  been  listed. 

290.  Peculiar  are  two  passages,  in  which  Christ  is  placed  among  the 
heavenly  spirits,  engla  beorhtast  /  ofer  middangeard  monnum  s ended,  Cr. 
104,  Sited  him  on  heofnum  halig  encgl[a]  /  waldend  mid  witegum,  Sat.  586. 

291.  poet  ic  wolde  towerpan  wuldres  leoman,  /  beam  helendes,  Sat.  85, 
se  woes  ordfruma  ealles  leohtcs,  Maxims  20,  se  sodfcesta  sunnan  leoma,  Cr. 
696,  similarly  106;  sofifeestra  leoht,  El.  7,  leohtes  leoht,  Prayer  III,  1,  ealles 
leohtes  leoht,  El.  486,  Du  eart  heofonlic  lioht,  Hymn  22,  en  glum  and  eord- 
warum  cepele  scima,  Cr.  697.  Wlitig  wuldres  gim,  Ph.  516.  Eala  Earendel! 
engla  beorhtast  /  .  .  .  /  and  sodjoesta  sunnan  leoma  /  torht  ofer  tunglas, 
Cr.  104-7. 

292.  poet  pu  fie  loece  ne  cystp,  Doom  66,  ealra  cyninga  /  help  and  heafod, 
halig  loece,  L.  Prayer  III,  61-2,  uplicum  loece,  se  ana  moeg  /  aglidene  modgod 
gode  gehcdan,  Doom  46-7.  We  quote  in  passing,  lifes  loecedomes  cet  lifes 
frean,  Doom  81,  ladafi  us  pider  to  leohte  purh  his  loecedom,  Sat.  589. 

293.  We  note  further,  fugel,  Cr.  636,  645,  etc.,  magna  goldhord,  Cr. 
787, 15<zt  halige  lamb,  Hymn  22,  godes  lomber47,  Gu.  1045,  referring  to  building, 
se  crozjtga,  Cr.  12,  se  weallstan,  2,  se  earcnanstan,  1196. 

VIII.     The  Holy  Ghost 

294.  In  the  New  Testament,  e.g.,  John  1,  33,  wed^a  ayioi>  appears  as 
the  third  person  of  the  Godhead,  which  phrase  Christian  Latin  translates 

47  Bode,  Kenningar,  p.  74,  remarks:  "Unter  uns  sind  einige  Kenningar  ublich,  die  das 
Leiden  Christi  hervorheben:  der  Gekreuzigte,  das  Lamm  Gottes,  es  ist  characteristisch,  dass 
diese  bei  unseren  Altvorderen  keine  Aufnahme  gefunden  haben."  His  assertion  is  not  borne 
out  by  the  facts.  We  might  also  point  to  such  close  parallels  as  pone  ahangnan  god,  Crist, 
cyning. 


87]  THE  DEITY  87 

by  spiritus  sanctus.  The  OE.  term  is  gdst,  gast,  m.,  OFris.  gdst,  OS.  gist, 
OHG.  geist,  from  the  common  Westgerm.  type  *gaisloz.i8  It  is  sometimes 
used  alone,  but  more  generally  modified.  Gdst,  like  the  Greek  and  Latin 
terms,  has  a  general  meaning,  it  being  used  for  instance  interchangeably 
with  sdwel,  man's  soul  or  spirit,  as  Jul.  413-15,  El.  888-9,  etc.,  etc.  It  is 
also  applied  to  the  evil  spirits,  fram  uncleenum  oft  generede  /  deofla  gastum, 
El.  301-2,  to  the  angels,  e.g.,  (God  sent)  gast  pone  halgan;  /  engel  .  .  ., 
Dan.  237-8,  etc. 

295.  When  used  as  a  designation  for  the  third  member  of  the  Godhead 
hdlig  is  generally  added,  as  Dox.  13,  Ex.  96,  Jul.  241,  Creed  41,  Dan.  403, 
etc.  But  often  the  term  has  a  weakened  meaning,  and  may  simply  stand 
for  the  power,  the  help  of  God,  or  the  divine  spirit.  Furthermore  it  is 
applied  to  the  first  person  of  the  Godhead,  as  also  to  the  second,  of  which 
latter  case  we  cite,  bringan  wolde  /  haligne  gast  to  heojonrice,  Sat.  561-2, 
and  gast  haligne,  Vs.  ~L.  96,  which  very  probably  refers  to  Christ,  since  in  this 
poem  he  seems  to  have  assumed  the  place  of  the  first  person  for  whom  we 
should  naturally  look.  A  reference  to  Christ  is  also  found  in  keofonhalig 
gast,  And.  728.  Aside  from  the  clear  cases  of  the  juxtaposition  of  the 
three  persons,  the  context  must  decide  as  to  who  is  meant  by  hdlig  gdst. 
Haliges  gastes,  And.  1000  and  1621,  evidently  refers  to  man. 

296.  The  Spirit  proceeds  from  the  Father  and  the  Son,  beem  inc  is 
gemeene  /  heahgeest  hleofozst,  Cr.  357-8,  showing  the  view  held  by  the 
Western  Church.49  Regarding  the  work  of  creation  it  is  said,  pa  wees 
wuldortorht  /  heofonweardes  gast  ofer  holm  boren,  Gen.  119-20,  which  may 
refer  to  the  third  person  of  the  Trinity.  The  Holy  Spirit  is  not  seldom 
mentioned  in  the  poems  dealing  with  Old  Testament  history,  so  Ex.  96, 
leading  the  Children  of  Israel  through  the  desert,  Ph.  549,  where  Job 
speaks  through  gcestes  bleed,  even  as  it  is  said  of  the  disciples  of  Christ, 
heefdon  gastes  bled,  Sat.  527.  We  have,  nu  we  geonge  pry  god  bletsia'd,  / 
felameahtigne  feeder  in  heofonum,  /  pone  sofian  sunu  and  pone  sigefcestan 
gcest,  Az.  155-7,  while  in  Daniel  he  is  mentioned  several  times.  In  most  of 
these  cases  the  Old  Testament  J"]}*!  *s  interpreted  according  to  New 
Testament  and  Christian  ideas. 

297.  Christ  is  born  through  Mary  and  pur h  peene  halgan  gast,  Invoca- 
tion 13,  and  it  is  stated,  Nces  deer  gefremmed  firen  at  giftum,  /  ac  peer  halig 

48  For  a  discussion  of  the  third  person  of  the  Trinity  in  OHG.  see  Raumer,  p.  370  ff.,  in 
ON.  Kahle,  I,  p.  386,  II,  147-9. 

49  The  qui  ex  Patre  Ftlioque  procedit  of  the  Nicene  Creed.  The  procession  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  from  the  Son  has  never  been  admitted  into  the  Creed  by  the  Eastern  Church.  The 
Filioque  was  probably  first  introduced  by  the  Spanish  Church  as  an  additional  protest  against 
the  Arian  denial  of  the  full  Godhead  of  the  Son,  probably  at  the  Council  of  Toledo  589. 
Compare  Cook,  The  Christ  of  Cynewtdf,  p.  108. 


88 


INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY 


[88 


gast  hand gy ft  sealde  ]  pare  famnan,  Creed  17-19.  The  Holy  Spirit  is 
especially  active  in  regard  to  the  faithful,  guarding  and  shielding  them 
against  enemies,  and  assisting  them  in  the  work  of  sanctification.  Thus 
it  is  said  after  the  conversion  of  Judas,  him  was  halig  gast  /  befolen  faste, 
El.  935-6,  and  concerning  Elene  herself,  pa  wic  beheold  /  halig  heofonlic 
gast,  hrefier  weardode,  /  adelne  innod,  1143-5.  Sins  may  compel  him  to 
leave,  pat  him  halig  gast  /  losige  purh  leahtras  on  pas  lanan  tid,  Cr.  1558-9. 
We  also  have  the  petition,  Bewyrc  us  on  heortan  haligne  gast  /  faste  on 
innan,  L.  Prayer  III,  79-80.  In  each  case  the  indwelling  of  the  Spirit  is 
emphasized.  He  is  the  helper  in  trouble,  hyre  (Juliana)  was  halig  gast  / 
singal  gesifi,  Jul.  241-2,  pat  pec  halig  gast  gescilde,  Gu.  427-8.  When  Daniel 
is  called  upon  to  explain  the  dream  of  the  Babylonian  king,  him  was  gast 
geseald,  /  halig  of  heofonum,  se  his  hyge  trymede,  533-4.  Very  often  the 
Holy  Spirit  is  the  helper,  shown  by  such  phrases  as  purh  gastes  gife,  El. 
199,  1057,  1156,  similarly  Jul.  316,  Cr.  710,  etc.,  and  similar  terms,  though 
they  may  sometimes  refer  merely  to  the  manifestation  of  the  divine  power 
and  not  to  a  personal  agent.  At  the  Last  Judgment  the  Holy  Spirit  with 
the  other  members  of  the  Trinity  judges  men,  Jul.  726  ff.,  etc.  Finally  at 
the  request  of  the  Father  Donne  halig  gast  helle  belucefi,  Cr.  1624,  and  the 
persons  of  the  Godhead  dwell  forever  in  Heaven,  And.  1684-6. 

298.  In  the  New  Testament  the  Holy  Spirit  is  called  a  number  of  times 
irapaKhrjTos,  the  comforter,  which  is  taken  over  by  the  Vulgate  as  paracletus. 
In  OE.  poetry  a  translation,  frofre  gast,  is  used,  as  Jud.  83,  And.  1684, 
frofregast,  Charm  VIII,  10,  similarly  Jul.  724;  siVdan  frofre  gast  /  wic 
gewunode  in  pas  weres  breostum  /  hylde  to  bote,  El.  1036-8.  However,  the 
term  may  also  be  applied  to  the  Father,  e.g.,  fader,  frofre  gast,  El.  1105, 
as  also  to  the  Son,  in  mec  (Mary)  frofre  gast  /  geardode,  Cr.  207-8,  also 
And.  906.    Guthlac's  guardian  angel  is  called  frofre  gast  Gu.  107. 

299.  In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  qualities  of  the  Father  and  the 
Son,  in  as  far  as  they  are  not  peculiarly  specific  characteristics,  may  also 
be  applied  to  the  Spirit,  but  are  very  sparingly  used,  as  the  third  person 
of  the  Trinity  occupies  a  far  less  prominent  place  in  OE.  poetry  than 
either  the  Father  or  the  Son.  Here  and  there  an  adjective,  as  in  pone 
blidan  gast,  Cr.  774,  pone  sigefastan  gast,  Az.  157,  is  found,  but,  compara- 
tively speaking,  the  available  material  is  meager. 


89]  THE  WORLD,  ANGELS,  AND  DEVILS  89 


CHAPTER  VIII 
THE  WORLD,  ANGELS,  AND  DEVILS 

I.     The  World 

300.  The  facts  of  Germanic  mythology  regarding  the  subject  may  be 
found  in  Grimm,  Deutsche  Mythologie,  I,  p.  463  ff.,  Ill,  160  ff.,  and  Golther, 
Handbuch  der  Germanischen  Mythologie,  p.  509  ff.  The  Scandinavians 
especially  had  developed  detailed  and  fairly  well-ordered  views  about  the 
universe.  The  distinction  between  heaven  and  earth  in  a  physical  and  to 
a  limited  extent  also  in  the  religious  sense  is  easily  made,  appears  in  dif- 
ferent religions,  and  needs  no  discussion  here. 


■■&•■ 


301.  However,  the  contrast  between  Heaven  and  earth  in  the  religious 
sense  became  more  definite  with  the  teachings  of  Christianity,  and  the 
lines  between  the  temporal,  sinful,  and  the  heavenly  were  more  sharply 
drawn.  In  Greek  two  words  came  to  be  used,  koghos  and  aluv,  which  the 
Vulgate  renders  by  tnundus  and  saeculum,  the  world  as  opposed  to  Heaven, 
and  the  vita  or  aetas.  OHG.  also  uses  two  words,  mittilgart  rendering 
mundus,  and  weralt  both  mundus  and  saeculum.  In  ON.  heimr  came  to  be 
employed  for  both  mundus  and  saeculum,  while  verqld  was  used  only  in 
the  sense  of  saeculum} 

302.  In  OE.  two  terms  are  also  employed,  middangeard  and  woruld. 
Middangeard,  m.,  Goth,  midjungards,  OHG.  mittangart,  indicates  the 
middle  earth,  the  place  situated  between  heaven  and  hell,  and  is  prac- 
tically always  used  in  the  physical  sense.  At  times  it  also  stands  for  man- 
kind, as  for  instance  in  pu  pisne  middangeard  milde  geblissa  /  purh  dinne 
hercyme,  hcdende  Crist,  Cr.  249,  and  middangeardes  weard,  Dan.  597. 

303.  More  important  for  our  purposes  is  woruld,  f.,  from  the  Teut. 
type  *wer-aldi,  the  term  also  occurring  in  other  Germanic  dialects.  So 
literally  woruld  means  hominum  aetas,  the  age  of  man.  Used  in  a  physical 
sense  it  stands  for  mundus,  as,  nemdest  eall  swa  peah  /  mid  ane  noman  ealle 
to gcedr e  /  woruld  under  wolcnum,  Met.  XX,  57,  and  penden  standefi  / 
woruld  under  wolcnum,  Gen.  916.  As  an  interesting  occurrence  of  the 
term  we  also  note,  sette  and  sende  on  VII  worulde  /  ear  mum  and  eadigum 
eallum  to  bote,  Charm  IV.  40,  which  Cockayne2  explains  as  "the  seven 
spheres  in  which  the  seven  planets  revolve,  the  earth  being  the  center  of 
observation."     A  number  of  times  woruld  is  contrasted  with  Heaven, 

1  For  OHG.  compare  Raumer,  p.  373  ff.,  for  ON.  Kahle,  I,  386  ff. 

2  Leedtdoms,  Wortcunning,  and  Starcraft  of  Early  England,  (3  vols.)  Ill,  p.  37.  Rolls 
Series,  London,  1864-6. 


90  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [90 

standing  in  a  religious  and  Biblical  sense.  Thus,  gewiton  of  worulde  drea- 
man,  sohton  him  wuldres  cyning,  Rood  B,  133.  pam  pe  his  giefe  willad  / 
picgan  to  ponce  and  him  pas  woruld  /  uttor  latan  ponne  past  ece  lif,  Gu.  96, 
sippan  he  pas  woruld  jorhogde,  713,  (who  would  possess  true  happiness) 
sceal  swideflion  /  disse  worulde  wlite,  Met.  VII,  31,pysse  worulde  (deriende) 
gefean  (noxia  gaudia  saecli).  Doom  232. 

304.  Not  infrequently  woruld  is  used  in  the  sense  of  saeculum.  Thus 
denoting  worldly  life  we  have,  gif  hine  gegripan  mot  /  se  eca  dead  after 
dissum  worulde,  Met.  X,  70.  In  the  meaning  of  in  saeculum,  in  saecula, 
etc.,  may  be  noted,  a  to  worulde  ford ,  Cr.  101,  similarly  Met.  XI,  17;  swa 
pu  eart  gewurfiod  a  on  worldaford!  L.  Prayer  III,  123.  We  note  further, 
Si  him  lof  symle,  /  purh  woruld  worulda  wuldor  on  heofnum,  Cr.  778,  wealded 
(the  Trinity)  in  woruld  worulda  wuldor gestealda,  And.  1686,  on  worulda 
woruld  wunad  and  rixad  (in  secula  seculorum),  Dox.  41,  on  worulda  woruld 
(in  saecula  saeculorum) ,  Ps.  LXXXIII,  5,  etc. 

305.  A  large  number  of  compounds  occur,  most  of  which,  however, 
have  no  religious  significance,  and  in  other  cases  it  is  not  readily  apparent. 
We  note  only  woruldblis,  as  in  pat  he  his  lichoman  /  wynna  forwyrnde  and 
woruldblissa,  Gu.  135,  and  woruldsaW,  Met.  II,  10,  etc. 

II.     Angels 

306.  The  Jewish-Christian  doctrine  of  angels  was  foreign  to  the  Ger- 
manic heathen  mind,  though  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  conception 
and  the  name  were  adopted  at  an  early  period  by  practically  all  the  tribes. 
In  the  Old  Testament  an  angel  was  called  TJ&OD  or  n1i"P  TjfcOD, 
messenger  of  Jehovah,  his  function  determining  the  designation.  The 
LXX  translates  the  Hebrew  word  by  a7YeXos,  messenger,  which  is  also 
employed  by  the  New  Testament.  The  term  is  taken  over  by  Christian 
Latin  as  angelus,  which  is  thus  divorced  from  its  general  meaning  of 
nuntius,  and  used  in  a  restricted  sense.  At  an  early  time  the  word  was 
adopted  by  various  Teutonic  tribes  either  from  Latin  angelus  or  more 
likely  from  Gothic  aggilus.3  In  OE.  it  appears  as  e.ngel,  angel,  angel, 
m.,  OS.  having  engil,  OFris.  angel,  en  gel,  OHG.  angil,  engil.  ON.  engill. 

307.  In  the  poetry  the  term  is  of  frequent  occurrence,  a  translation 
such  as  ar  or  boda  being  seldom  used.4  As  in  our  discussion  of  the  classes, 
attributes  and  kennings,  as  well  as  of  the  work  of  the  angels,  the  word  will 
occur  a  number  of  times,  no  examples  need  be  cited  here. 

3  See  Raumer,  p.  378,  Kluge,  Etymologisches  Worterbuch,  article  Tenfel;  Gotische  Lehn- 
worle,  p.  135,  Pogatscher,  pp.  203-5,  also  NED. 

4  For  a  discussion  of  angels  in  OHG.  see  Raumer,  pp.  378-9,  in  ON.  Kahle,  I,  pp.  390-1, 
II,  149-51. 


91]  THE  WORLD,  ANGELS,  AND  DEVILS  91 

308.  We  are  informed  that  there  was  a  time  when  angels  had  not  yet 
been  created,  Nees  cenig  pa  giet  engel  geworden  /  ne  pas  -miclan  magen- 
prymmes  nan,  Cr.  351-2.  The  creation  and  the  classes  are  referred  to  in 
Hafde  se  ealwalda  engelcynna  /  .  .  .  /  tyne  getrymede,  Gen.  246-8,  though 
in  the  poetry  not  all  of  these  classes  appear.  The  race  of  angels  is  men- 
tioned a  number  of  times,  as,  eat  engla  cynn,  Jul.  644,  anlicnes  engelcynna, 
And.  717,  etc.,  engla  hades,  Prayer  III,  34,  engla  gebyrdo,  Gen.  583.  A 
fondness  to  have  angels  appear  in  troops  and  hosts  may  also  be  noted. 

309.  As  possibly  distinct  classes  the  Seraphim  and  Cherubim  appear, 
though  the  usual  order  is  inverted  And.  719-20,  Cheruphim  and  Seraphim  / 
pa  on  swegeldreamum  syndon  nemned,  referred  to  as  pees  bremestan  of  the 
angels  718.  More  specific  details  about  the  Cherubim  are  furnished  El. 
739-46,  para  on  hade  sint  /  in  sindreame  syx  genemned,  /  pa  ymbsealde 
synt  mid  syxum  eac /  fidrum,  gefratwad,  fcegere  scinap;/ para  sint.  IIII.,pe  on 
flihte  a  I  pa  pegnunge  prymme  beweotigap  /  fore  ansyne  eces  demon,/  singallice 
singap  .  .  .  pam  is  Ceruphin  noma,  749.  In  the  Psalms  the  name  is 
simply  taken  over,  Dw  de  sylfa  nu  sittest  ofer  cherubin  (qui  sedes  super 
cherubin),  LXXIX,  2,  and  silted  ofer  cherubin  (qui  sedet  super  cherubim), 
XCVIII,  1.  Aside  from  And.  719,  the  Seraphim  are  mentioned  thrice,  as, 
Syndon  tu  on  pam,  /  sigorcynn  on  swegle,  pe  man  Seraphin  /  be  naman 
hated.  He  sceal  neorxnawang  and  lifes  treo  legene  sweorde  /  halig  healdan,5 
El.  753-7,  and  wuldre  gewlitegod  Serafhin,  Charm  VII,  30.  In  Cr.  386-8  the 
Seraphim  are  performing  the  services  assigned  to  the  Cherubim  in  Elene, 
for  we  are  told,  sodfaste  Seraphinnes  cynn/ uppe  mid  englum  a  bremende/ 
unapreotendum  Jyrymmum  singad. 

310.  The  archangels,  especially  Gabriel,  are  mentioned  a  few  times. 
He  is  called  godes  arendraca,  Cr.  12,  a  term  also  applied  to  the  apostles, 
godes  spelboda,  Gabriel,  Cr.  366,  and  his  heahbodan,  295.  His  qualities  are 
mentioned,  Eala  Gabrihell  hu  pu  eart  gleaw  and  scearp,  /  milde  and  gemyn- 
dig  and  monpware,  /  wis  on  pinum  gewitte  and  on  pinum  worde  snottor, 
Har.  76-8.  Heofones  heagengel,  Cr.  202,  and  heahengel,  Men.  50,  are  also 
applied  to  Gabriel.  The  same  designation  is  used  for  Michael,  heahengles 
tiid  on  harfeste,  /  Michahelis,  Men.  177.  Halig  is  se  halga  heahengla  god, 
the  Cherubim  sing  El.  750,  the  song  of  the  Seraphim  being  Halig  eart  pu 
halig  heahengla  brego,  Cr.  403.  We  note  further,  heahengla  cyning,  Cr.  528, 
and  heahengla  mcegen,  1019,  heahenglas,  Sat.  601.  Though  the  term  heah- 
engel is  the  designation  for  the  archangels,  it  need  not  be  assumed,  however, 
that  it  is  not  used  in  a  wider  sense,  though  And.  883-5  may  not  be  con- 
clusive,   twelfe    getealde,    tireadige    haled;/  .   .   .  /  halige    heahenglas.      It 

8  The  Vulgate  has  et  collocavit  ante  paradisum  voluptatis  Cherubim.  In  our  passage  a 
Seraph  performs  the  duty.  The  plural  form  in  the  Vulgate  might  easily  be  mistaken  by  an 
Anglo-Saxon  poet.    Genesis  especially  is  rich  in  amusing  blunders.    Compare  Bibl.  II,  p.  169. 


92  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [92 

might  even  be  used,  in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  OE.  poetry,  as  a 
general  indication  of  their  place  of  abode.  Upengel  seems  to  have  this 
meaning,  as  in  upengla  fruma  edel  secan,  And.  226,  and  upengla  weard,  210. 
Very  similar  are  ufancundes  engles,  Gu.  1097,  engel  ufancundne,  1216,  also 
aras  ufancunde,  Cr.  503.  Probably  not  very  different  is  heofonengel,  which 
we  have  in  heofonengla  preat,  Cr.  492,  928,  heofonengla  cyning,  1010,  L. 
Prayer  III,  13,  while  we  read  heofonengla  god  Jul.  642  and  heofonengla 
here  Cr.  1278. 

311.  Among  the  qualities  of  angels  a  few  ascribed  to  Gabriel  have 
already  been  mentioned.  However,  the  wisdom  of  the  angelic  host  is  not 
unlimited,  as  it  is  remarked,  ne  pat  cenig  ne  wat  engla  hades  /  pa  heahnisse 
heofena  kyninges,  Prayer  III,  34-5.  Their  brightness  is  often  referred  to, 
as,  engel  celbeorht  .  .  .  /  wlitescyne  wer  on  his  wuldorhaman,  Dan.  337-8, 
(zlbeorhte  englas,  Cr.  506,  548,  with  the  word  order  changed  881,  celbeorhtra 
scolu,  Cr.  929,  weorud  wlitescyne,  493,  beorhte  gewerede,  552,  hwit  and 
heofonbeorht  heagengla  mozgen,  1019,  ozlbeorhte  .  .  .  /  heofonengla  here, 
1277-8,  wlitescyne  on  weres  hade,  /  hwit  and  hiwbeorht,  El.  72-3,  cefielestan 
engelcynne,  /  pe  geond  lyft  farad  leohte  bewundene  /  mycle  mcegenprymme, 
732-4,  mid  pa  leohtan  gedryht,  736,  cwom  engel  godes  /  frcetwum  blican, 
Jul.  563-4,  etc. 

312.  Other  characteristics  occur,  of  which  we  mention  the  most  impor- 
tant, though  they  are  often  applied  indirectly.  Halig  engel,  Gen.  946, 
halige  heahenglas,  And.  885,  sio  halge  gecynd,  Cr.  1018,  etc.,  eadiges  engles, 
Sal.  450,  eadig  engla  gedryht,  Cr.  1014,  mihtig  engel,  Ex.  205,  sigorfcest 
ipegn),  Gu.  1218,  pegnas  prymfceste,  Gen.  15,  englas  arfceste,  2525,  pat 
sofifceste  Seraphinnes  cynn,  Cr.  386,  wlitig  wuldres  boda,  El.  11 ,  fcele  (used 
with  freoduweard  and  similar  terms),  El.  88,  Gen.  2301,  2497,  Gu.  144, 
marne  mcegupegn,  And.  366,  dcedhwcete,  Cr.  385,  stififerfie,  And.  722. 

313.  The  only  adjective  formed  with  engel  is  engelcund,  angelic,  found 
once,  him  giefe  sealde  /  engelcunde,  Gu.  72. 

314.  Not  infrequently  the  term  gdst,  generally  modified,  is  applied  to 
the  angels,  undoubtedly  influenced  by  Ps.  CHI,  5,  where  the  Vulgate 
reading  qui  facis  angelos  tuos  spiritus  et  ministros  tuos  ignem  urentem  is 
rendered  by  Re  his  englas  ded  ozb*ele  gastas  and  hisfrome  degnasfyr  bymende. 
Thus  we  have,  gast  pone  halgan,  Dan.  237,  hwcet  seo  hand  write  haliges 
gastes,  733,  gcest  haligne,  Gu.  1215,  halige  gastas,  Rood  B,  11,  Gen.  2399; 
wuldorgast  godes,  Gen.  2912,  godes  cerendgast,  2296. 

315.  Of  other  kennings  for  angels  the  most  important  may  find  a  place 
here.6    Godes  arendraca  as  applied  to  Gabriel  in  Creed  12  has  already  been 

6  Bode,  Kenningar,  gives  a  few.    See  also  Rankin,  DC,  pp.  60-61. 


93]  THE  WORLD,  ANGELS,  AND    DEVILS  93 

mentioned.  Used  of  the  angels  visiting  Lot  we  have  nergendes  /  afiele 
arendracan,  Gen.  2433-4.  Ar,  messenger,  occurs  a  number  of  times,  so 
El.  76,  87,  aras,  Cr.  759,  Gen.  2424,  halige  aras,  2456,  wuldres  aras,  Cr. 
493,  El.  737,  aras  ufancunde,  Cr.  503.  Boda,  messenger,  is  also  used. 
Thus,  bodan,  Cr.  449,  wlitig  wuldres  boda,  El.  77.  Of  compounds  we  have 
for  instance  godes  spelboda  Gabriel,  Cr.  336,frome  war  on  j  godes  spelbodan, 
Gen.  2494,  wuldres  wilboda,  Gu.  1220.  A  peaceful  mission  is  indicated  by 
fale  fridowebba,  El.  88,  fcele  freoduweard,  Gu.  144,  fale  freodoscealc,  Gen. 
2301,  the  plural  bemg  found  2497.  Among  terms  showing  peculiar  rela- 
tionships to  God  we  note,  pegnas  prymfaste,  Gen.  15,  wuldres  pegn,  Gen. 
2266,  similarly  2568,  And.  726;  metodes  Vegn,  Gen.  2907,  similarly  Gu.  1217; 
hehpegn,  Dan.  443,  mccrne  magupegn,  And.  366;  ymb  pat  hehsetl  hwite 
standad  /  engla  fed  an,  Sat.  221,  halge  herefedan,  Cr.  1013. 

316.  From  the  previous  discussion  it  will  be  gathered  that  the  impor- 
tant function  of  the  heavenly  spirits  is  the  worship  of  the  Deity  and  the 
carrying  out  of  his  commandments.  The  protection  of  the  faithful  against 
enemies,  especially  evil  spirits,  is  often  mentioned.  Instead  of  the  rather 
frequent  examples  we«cite  Charm  VIII,  19-25,  where,  after  the  invocation 
of  the  saints,  the  poet  continues,  eac  dusend  pira  engla  /  clipige  ic  me  to 
are  wi15  eallum  feondum.  /  Hi  meferion  and  fripion  and  mine  fore  nerion,  / 
eal  me  gehealdon,  me  gewealdon  /  worces  stirende,  si  me  wuldres  hyht  /  hand 
ofer  heafod,  haligra  rof,  /  sigerofra  sceote,  sofifastra  engla.  The  idea  of  the 
guardian  angel  is  especially  noteworthy  in  Guthlac.  We  are  told  that  the 
heavenly  spirits  protect  the  saints,  fore  him  englas  standad  /  gearwe  mid 
gasta  wcepnum  .  .  .  /  healdad  haligra  feorh,  59-61.  It  is  said,  81-4,  that 
God  sent  a  particular  angel  in  order  to  dampen  the  lusts  of  the  saint-to-be. 
The  good  and  the  evil  angel  engage  in  warfare  for  his  soul,  hinetwegen  ymb/ 
weardas  wacedon,  pa  gewinn  drugon,  /  engel  dryhtnes  and  se  atela  gast,  85-7. 
The  good  angel  wins,  and  henceforth  Guthlac  is  protected,  Hine  weard 
biheold  /  halig  of  heofonum,  se  pat  hluttre  mod  /  in  pas  gastes  god  georne 
trymede,  76-8,  and  sip  pam  frofre  gast  /  in  Gufilaces  geoce  gewunade,  107-8. 
Several  times  the  guardian  angel  is  mentioned,  of  whom  the  saint  says, 
pat  me  engel  to  ealle  geladed  /  spowende  sped  spreca  and  dada,  224-5,  and 
nu  mec  sawelcund  /  hyrde  bihealdefi,  288-9.  This  protection  extends  until 
the  time  of  death,  when  was  Gudlaces  gast  geladed  /  engla  fadmum  in 
upr odor  I  fore  onsyne  eces  demon,  753-5,  and  was  Gudlaces  gast  geladed  / 
eadig  on  upweg,  englas  feredun  /  to  pam  longan  gefean,  1279-81,  which  is  in 
line  with  the  general  belief  as  expressed  in  englas  feredon  /  sodfaste  sawle 
innan  swegles  leoht,  Chr.  V,  27-8.  In  Salomon  and  Saturn  the  good  angel 
loses  in  the  contest,  and  Gewited  "Sonne  wepende  on  weg  far  an  /  engel  to  his 
earde  and  Sat  eall  sagaS:  /  "  Ne  meahte  ic  of  flare  heortan  heardne  adringan  / 
stylenne  stan,  sticaS  him  to  middes  ****." 


94  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [94 

III.     Devils 

317.  As  the  foe  of  God  and  the  heavenly  kingdom  the  devil  with  his 
adherents  plays  a  very  prominent  part  in  OE.  poetry.  In  the  Old  Testa- 
ment the  chief  of  the  evil  spirits  is  called  )£D]£?,  adversary.      The  LXX  as 

a  rule  renders  this  by  5td/3oXos,  slanderer,  aterm  also  employed  by  the  New 
Testament,  though  6  aaravas  is  sometimes  used.  The  Greek  8lclI3o\os  as  a 
translation   of   Hebrew  ]^j^  was   regularly   retained  by  the    Old  Latin 

version  of  the  Scriptures  as  diabolus,  but  Jerome  in  his  version,  the  Vul- 
gate, substituted  Satan.  In  his  New  Testament  diabolus  also  occurs. 
Gothic  adopts  the  Greek  5ia/3oXos  as  diabaiilus  or  diabulus,  and  it  is  not 
improbable  that  other  Germanic  tribes  received  the  word  from  this  source.7 
The  OE.  form  is  deofol,  deoful,  mn.,  OFris.  diovel,  OS.  diubul  with  variants, 
OHG.  tiuval,  etc.,  ON.  djofull. 

318.  As  has  been  indicated,  deoful  is  extremely  common  in  OE.  poetry, 
examples  of  which  will  occur  in  the  subsequent  discussion.  For  the  chief 
of  the  fallen  angels  the  Latin  Satan,  Satanus,  and  Lucifer  are  found  a  few 
times.  Regarding  the  fallen  angels  God  decided  among  other  things, 
se  hehsta  hatan  sceolde  /  Satan  siddan,  Gen.  344-5.  The  term  is  also  met 
with  Gen.  347,  And.  1689,  Sat.  712,  etc.  Satanus  occurs  for  instance  Sat. 
371,  447,  692,  etc.  Lucifer  (leohtberende)  is  found  once,  Sat.  367.  We  are 
told  that  before  the  fall  the  chief  devil  was  engla  weard,  Gen.  22,  pe  cer  wees 
engla  scynost,  /  hwittost  on  heofnon,  338-9,  gelic  wees  hepam  leohtum  steorrum, 
256,  and  he  himself  says,  Ic  wees  iu  in  heofnum  halig  cengel  .  .  .  Sat.  81. 
But  he  has  become  se  ofermoda  cyning,  Gen.  338,  who  rebelled  against  God 
for  oferhygde,  22,  and  with  his  adherents  was  cast  down  into  hell,  peer  he 
to  deofle  weard,  305,  while  heo  (namely  the  rebellious  angels)  ealle  forsceop  / 
drihten  to  deoflum,  308-9.  In  different  poems,  such  as  Genesis,  Elene, 
Christ  and  Satan,  etc.,  the  circumstances  of  the  fall  are  recounted  with 
more  or  less  detail. 

319.  The  devil  with  the  evil  spirits  becomes  the  enemy  of  God  and 
man.  The  term  feond,  the  hating  and  hostile  one,  sometimes  modified, 
but  often  alone,  is  frequently  used  synonymously  with  deojol.  We  note, 
feond,  Sal.  69,  91,  100,  Gu.  107,  etc.,  feond  moncynnes,  Jul.  317,  523,  630, 
sawla  jeond,  348,  ece  feond,  Gen.  1261,  flah  feond  gemah,  Whale  39,  se  ealda 
feond,  Panther  58,  El.  207,  ealdfeondes  cefest,  Ph.  401,  ealdfeondes  /  scyldigra 
scolu,  Gu.  174-5,  ealdfind  (pi.),  Har.  89,  ealdfeondas,  Gu.  189,  ealdfeonda 
nan,  Ph.  449,  ealdfeonda  nid,  Gu.  112,  etc.,  etc.  We  note  also  feondeetes, 
Ps.  CV,  24,  referring  to  the  eating  of  sacrificial  offerings,  and  feondgyld 

7  Kluge,  Etymologisches  Worterbuck,  article  Teufel;  Lehnworte,  pp.  134-5.  The  NED., 
after  having  mentioned  that  the  Gothic  word  is  directly  from  Greek,  continues,  "  the  forms 
in  the  other  Teutonic  langs.  were  partly  at  least  from  Latin,  and  prob.  adopted  more  or  less 
independently  of  each  other." 


95]  THE  WORLD,  ANGELS,  AND  DEVILS  95 

gebrcec,  in  the  same  verse.  The  terms  apply  to  the  subordinates,  charac- 
terized Sat.  104-5,  feond  seondon  rede,/  dimme  and  deorce,  as  well  as  to 
the  chief,  who  is  feonda  aldor,  Sat.  76.  He  is  also  godes  andsaca,  Sat.  191, 
etc.,  a  phrase  also  used  for  the  other  devils,  so  for  instance  in  godes  and- 
sacan,  Sat.  719,  Gu.  204,  earme  andsacan,  181,  etc.,  etc. 

320.  The  activities  of  the  devils  in  seducing  man  are  described  in  a 
number  of  places,  a  subject  to  be  discussed  in  the  next  chapter.  The  chief 
with  the  evil  spirits  is  the  cause  of  sin,  the  following  terms  for  instance 
being  applied  to  Satan,  yfles  ordfruma,  Sat.  374,  j acnes  frumbearn,  Gu.  1044, 
And.  1294,  morpres  brytta,  And.  1170,  mordres  manfrea,  And.  1313,  simi- 
larly Jul.  546;  ealre  synne  fruma,  El.  771,  synna  fruman,  Jul.  362,  leahtra 
fruman,  El.  838.  To  these  we  add  others,  which  are  only  partly  ascribed 
to  the  chief,  in  some  cases  there  being  doubt  as  to  whether  Satan  or  a 
subordinate  spirit  is  meant.  Fyrnsynna  fruman,  Jul.  347,  mordres  man- 
frea, El.  941,  And.  1313,  synna  bryttan,  El.  957,  synna  hyrdas,  Gu.  522, 
synna  weardas,  Judg.  16.  It  should  be  noted  that  for  instance  Abimelech 
is  called  synna  brytta  Gen.  2641.  Though  it  is  said  of  Wyrd,  Sal.  443, 
eallra  fyrena  fruma,  fcehdo  modor,  and  445,  frumscylda  gehwces  feeder  and 
modor,  we  must  identify  Wyrd  in  these  passages  with  the  fallen  angel,  a 
case  not  isolated  in  OE.  poetry. 

321.  The  relation  between  devils  and  hell  is  naturally  very  close. 
The  chief  is  hellwarena  cyning,  Jul.  322,  437,  etc.,  his  gingran,  Sat.  191, 
being  helle  scealcas,  133.  The  seducer  of  Eve  is  called  handpegen  helle, 
Sat.  485.  Among  other  terms  encountered  we  note,  helledeofol,  El.  900, 
helle  dioful,  And.  1298,  helle  deofol,  Jul.  629,  etc.,  helle  hazjiling,  Jul.  246, 
And.  1342,  a  term  comparatively  frequent;  pystra  slihtend,  Jul.  419, 
peostra  pegnas,  Gu.  668,  hellepegna,  1042,  hellsceada,  Gen.  694,  etc.,  helle- 
hinca,  And.  1171. 

322.  The  devils  were  looked  upon  as  spirits,  capable,  however,  of 
assuming  the  form  of  angel,  man,  or  animal,  as  exemplified  in  such  poems 
as  Salomon  and  Saturn,  Juliana,  Guthlac,  etc.  In  giving  a  few  examples  of 
designations,  we  have  selected  such  as  illustrate  to  some  extent  at  least 
qualities  ascribed  to  the  evil  spirits.  Hean  hellegcest,  Jul.  457,  615,  se  atola 
gast,  And.  1296,  se  atela  gcest,  Gu.  87,  se  werega  gast,  Sat.  126,  se  werga 
gcest,  Gu.  422,  pa  werigan  gastas,  Sat.  731,  earme  gastas,  Gu.  490,  etc.,  atole 
gastas,  I  swarte  and  synfulle,  Sat.  51-2,  se  swearta  gcest,  Cr.  269,  Mac  bealowes 
gast,  Sat.  721,  unclcene  gcest,  Jul.  418,  geomre  gastas,  Gen.  69,  done  ladan 
gcest,  Sal.  86. 

323.  Of  the  many  other  kennings  for  devils  encountered  in  the  poetry, 
we  note  the  more  important.8     Wrad  wcerloga,  And.  1297,  wcerlogan,  Gu. 

8  Compare  Bode,  Kenningar,  p.  76  ff.,  Rankin,  IX,  p.  56  ff. 


96  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [96 

269,  595,  etc.,  etc.,  awyrgde  wcerlogan  on  Wynnes  bleo,  883,  wcerleas  werod, 
Gen.  67,  wifierbrecan,  64,  wuldres  wifierbreca,  Jul.  269,  wrohtes  wyrhtan, 
346,  wrohtbora,  Cr.  763,  wrohlsmidas,  Gu.  877,  teonsmidas,  176,  wrcecca 
wcerleas,  Jul.  351,  se  wrcecmcecga,  260,  wrcecmoecgas,  Gu.  234,  wrade  wrcec- 
mcecgas,  530,  etc.,  sawla  gewinnan,  Jul.  555,  H<zW5a  gewinna,  243,  similarly 
345;  g/eaw  gyrnstafa  gcestgenidla,  245,  brcegdwis  bona,  Gu.  58,  ftaraaw  «d«- 
cynnes,  And.  1293,  feorgbona,  Whale  41,  swarte  suslbonan,  Sat.  640,  se 
aglceca,  Jul.  268,  319,  earm  aglceca,  430,  ea/oZ  ceclceca  yfela  gemyndig,  El.  901, 
se  awyrgda,  Sat.  316,  Whale  67,  awyrgda,  Sat.  676,  691,699,  deoflum  .  .  .,  / 
awyrgedum  gastum  {daemonibus  dudum  fuerantque  parata  malignis,  91), 
Doom  182-3. 

324.  To  these  may  be  added  fah  wyrm,  the  seducer  of  Eve,  Gen.  899, 
who  eats  of  the  fruit  wyrmes  larum,  Gu.  818.  In  the  same  connection  occur 
also  me  ncedre  beswac,  Gen.  897,  and  pur h  ncedran  nip,  Ph.  413.  Probably 
applied  in  a  wider  sense,  the  devil  is  called  draca  egeslice,  Sal.  26,  while 
butan  dracan  anum  /  attres  ordfruman,  Panther  57-8,  seems  to  point  to 
the  chief.  He  is  also  called  se  awyrgda  wulf,  Cr.  256,  deor  dcedscua,  257. 
The  Anglo-Saxon  poet  did  not  hesitate  to  apply  to  the  evil  one  the  strongest 
epithets  of  which  the  language  was  capable. 

325.  The  OE.  deofol  is  wider  in  its  application  than  the  Greek  5t<x/3oXos. 
It  may  thus  be  applied  to  the  ocu/jLovia  or  dai/xoves  of  the  LXX  and  the 
New  Testament,  which  identify  them  with  Satan  and  his  emissaries. 
We  have  seen  in  323  that  deoflum  .  .  .,  /  awyrgedum  gastum,  Doom  182-3, 
renders  daemonibus  malignis.  Among  Christ's  activities  are  mentioned 
fram  unclcenum  oft  generede  /  deofla  gastum,  El.  301-2.  The  term  is  also 
applied  to  heathen  idols,  who  are  looked  upon  as  devils.  Thus  Quoniam 
omnes  dii  gentium  daemonia,  Ps.  XCV,  4,  is  rendered  by  Syndon  ealle 
hcepenu  godu  hildedeoful,  the  worship  of  heathen  divinities  being  equivalent 
to  devil  worship.  The  idols  of  Egypt  are  called  deofolgyld,  Ex.  47.  The 
interchanging  of  the  terms  may  be  seen  very  clearly  in  Juliana.  Hofon 
hcepengield,  occurs  line  15,  it  being  remarked  of  Helisius,  Oft  he  hcepengield  / 
ofer  word  godes  weoh  gesohte,  22-3,  while  he  is  informed  by  Juliana  of  her 
refusal  to  marry  him,  gif  pu  to  scemran  gode  /  purh  deofolgield  dade  bepen- 
cest,  I  hatst  hmpenweoh,  51-3.  Her  father  is  concerned  about  her  attitude 
and  her  "foolish  talk,"  pa  pu  goda  ussa  gield  forhogdest,  146,  but  to  his 
threats  she  replies,  Ncefre  pu  gelcerest,  pcet  ic  leasingum  /  dumbum  and 
deaf  urn  deofolgieldum  /  gcesta  geniMum  gaful  aphate,  149-51.  Diofolgild,  / 
ealde  eolhstedas  anforlcetan,  is  said  of  the  Mermedonians  And.  1641-2, 
while  se  halga  (Andrew)  herigeas  preade,  /  deofulgild  todraf,  1687-8.  A 
turning  towards  strange  gods  is  evidently  referred  to  Dan.  32,  where  it  is 
said  of  the  Israelites,  curon  deofles  craft.  The  magicians  of  the  Babylonians 
are  styled  deofolwitgan,  line  128.    In  Elene  the  Jewish  religion  is  practically 


97]  THE  WORLD,  ANGELS,  AND  DEVILS  97 

identified  with  devil  worship.  Cyriacus  has  chosen  the  better  thing, 
wuldres  wynne  and  pam  wyrsan  widsoc,  /  deofulgildum  and  gedwolan  fylde,  / 
unrihte  <z,  1039-41. 

326.  As  indicated  before,  wih,  m.,  is  used  in  the  sense  of  idol,  pcet  hie 
bees  wiges  wihte  ne  rohton,  Dan.  201,  ne  pysne  wig  wurdigean,  208,  (ne  wolde) 
wig  weordian,  Ap.  48,  Woden  worhte  weos,  Gn.  Ex.  133.  Gyld,  n.,  idol, 
gyld  of  golde  guman  arcerde,  Dan.  175,  to  pam  gyldnan  gylde,  204,  gif  pu 
onsecgan  nelt  sopnm  gieldum,  Jul.  174;  in  the  sense  of  heathen  worship, 
pa  pu  goda  ussa  gieldforhogdest,  146.  It  is  also  used  in  a  non-heathen  sense, 
(Abraham)  his  waldende  /  on  pam  glcedstede  gild  onscegde  /  lac  geneahe, 
Gen.  2842.  The  interesting  compound  wihgyld,  idol,  may  be  mentioned 
here,  wurfiedon  (Babylonians)  wihgyld,  Dan.  182.  We  note  further, 
Ewilum  hie  geheton  cet  hoergtrafum  /  wigweorpunga,  Beow.  176,  and 
buton  pu  fori  ate  pa  leasinga  /  weohweordinga,  Jul.  180.  The  verb  gyldan, 
to  sacrifice,  in  the  heathen  sense,  we  have  Dan.  212,  similarly  Ps.  CV,  26. 

327.  As  pointed  out  in  7,  the  connection  between  heathen  and  devil  is 
very  close,  the  devil  himself  for  instance  being  called  a  heathen  Jul.  536. 
It  should  also  be  noticed  that  the  characteristics  of  the  devil  may  be 
ascribed  to  other  beings,  or  they  themselves  may  be  called  by  this  very 
name.  So  Grendel  is  referred  to  sls  feond  in  helle,  Beow.  101,  mancynnes 
feond,  1276,  hellegast,  1274,  godes  andsaca,  1682,  while  after  deofla  hryre, 
1680,  refers  to  Grendel  and  his  mother.  Similar  designations  might  be 
added.  Epithets  generally  applied  to  the  devil  may  also  be  given  to  men. 
So  the  Babylonians  are  called  ge  deoflu,  Dan.  750,  the  Jews  werge  wrozc- 
mceccgas,  El.  387,  while  the  Mermedonians  are  styled  wccrlogan,  And.  71, 
108,  etc„  werigum  wrohtsmidum,  86,  mangenidlan,  /  grame  grynsmidas, 
916-17.  The  relation  is  very  close  in  deofles  pegnas  And.  43  (compare 
Satanes  degn,  Sal.  117,  and  similar  terms).  Cr.  896  and  899  the  damned 
are  called  devils,  the  blessed  being  referred  to  as  angels.  An  evil  man 
is  characterized  a.sfeondes  beam  /  flcesce  bifongen,  Moods  47-8. 

328.  The  compounds  of  deofol  are  few.  Aside  from  helledeofol  and 
hildedeofol,  we  have  once  the  poetic  deofolcund,  diabolical,  applied  to 
Holofernes,  Jud.  61,  and  once  also  the  poetic  deofoldald,  Dan.  18,  where 
it  is  said  of  the  Israelites,  hie  wlenco  anwod  cet  winpege  /  deofoldcedum, 
druncne  gedohtas.  Deofolgild,  in  the  sense  of  idolum,  simulacrum,  and 
idolatria  has  already  been  mentioned,  as  also  the  poetical  deofolwitgan, 
Dan.  128.  Scucca,  seducer,  as  also  similar  designations,  will  be  found  in 
the  treatment  of  temptation,  chapter  IX,  370. 


98  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [98 


CHAPTER  IX     - 
SIN 

329.  The  New  Testament  furnishes  in  1  John  3,  4,  17  a^aprla  early  17 
avoula,  a  definition  of  sin,  where  its  essence  is  conceived  of  as  the  deviation 
from  the  law  of  God  or  the  transgression  of  such  divine  law.  In  spite  of 
assertions  to  the  contrary,1  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  many  heathen 
peoples  have  a  fairly  clear  conception  of  good  and  evil  in  their  general 
aspects.  However,  it  should  be  pointed  out  that  according  to  the  Christian 
belief  every  transgression  constitutes  an  offense  against  the  holy  God,  and 
in  this  consists  the  gravity  of  the  act.  It  is  a  fundamental  principle  foreign 
to  heathenism. 

I.     General  Terms 

330.  The  Greek  apLaprla  is  rendered  in  Latin  by  peccatum,  the  verb 
afiapraveiv  by  peccare.  In  OE.  syn{n),  f.,  from  original  *sunjo,  is  used  to 
express  the  idea,  related  to  OFris.  sende,  OS.  sundea,  OHG.  sunta,  ON. 
synd,  the  stem  being  perhaps  identical  with  L.  sons,  guilty.2  The  OE.  word, 
which  renders  not  only  L.  peccatum,  but  also  culpa,3  is  of  frequent  occur- 
rence in  OE.  poetry,  so  that  a  few  examples  will  suffice  here,  besmiten 
mid  synne  sawldreore,  Gen.  1520,  pare  sawle,  pe  hip  synna  Jul,  Seaf.  100, 
synna  wunde,  Cr.  1314,  synna  lease,  Jul.  188,  mine  saule  synnum  jorwundod, 
Prayer  I,  3,  etc.,  etc. 

331.  A  number  of  compounds  occur,  of  which  may  be  noted  synbyrZen, 
once,  Cr.  1300,  syndad,  dat.  pi.  Ps.  CVI,  33  (a  malitia),  synjdh,  as,  synfa 
men,  Cr.  1083,  synfull,  guilty,  fairly  frequent,  so  in  the  pi.  And.  764  applied 
to  the  elders  of  Israel,  and  Gu.  646  to  the  devils,  etc.,  synleasig,  Beow.  2227, 
synlice,  Cr.  1480,  Ps.  LXII,  8,  synlust,  Cr.  269,  synnig,  used  frequently, 
of  the  devil,  El.  955,  the  plural  being  applied  to  the  Jews,  And.  565,  etc. 
We  have  further  synrust*  in  synrust  pwean,  Cr.   1321,  synsceaZa,  a  few 

1Lingard,  in  Vol.  I,  p.  42,  of  his  History  and  Antiquities  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church,  in 
speaking  of  the  "pagan  Saxons,"  says:  "In  their  theology  they  acknowledged  no  sin  but 
cowardice,  and  revered  no  virtue  but  courage."  He  seems  to  be  very  anxious  to  make  the 
contrast  between  the  heathen  and  the  christianized  Anglo-Saxons  as  great  as  possible,  in 
order  that  the  "mild  influence  of  the  gospel"  may  make  a  deep  impression  upon  the  mind 
of  the  reader. 

2  Compare  NED.,  also  Kahle,  I,  p.  396.  For  the  chapter  on  Sin  compare  Raumer,  p. 
384  ff.,  Kahle,  I,  395  ff.,  II,  151-2. 

3  Once  the  poetic  culpa  or  culpe  occurs,  ne  ic  culpan  in  pe  (onfunde),  Cr.  177. 

4  Compare  Cook's  note  on  synrust  in  Mod.  L.  Notes,  IV,  p.  129.  Though  it  would  seem 
that  Cynewulf  coined  certain  compounds  with  syn,  synbyr'oen  and  synlust  must  be  stricken 
from  Cook's  list,  as  they  occur  also  elsewhere. 


99]  SIN  99 

times,  as,  Jul.  671,  Cr.  706,  etc.,  the  term  being  used  of  devils  and  sinful 
men  alike,  synscyldig  in  the  gen.  pi.,  Doom  168  (scelerum,  83),  where  it  is 
applied  to  the  damned  in  hell,  synwracu,  vengeance  for  sin,  rare,  occurring 
Cr.  794,  1540,  and  Gu»  832,  synwund,  once,  Cr.  757,  synwyrcend,  being 
applied  to  the  devil  El.  943,  to  the  Jews  395,  and  used  in  a  more  general 
way  in  atghwylcum  /  synwyrcendra,  Cr.  842.  The  gen.  pi.  we  find  Ps. 
LXXXI,  2  {peccatorum),  and  synwyrcende  CXL,  11  {operantium  iniquita- 
tem).  The  verb  is  syngian,  gesyngian,  which  occurs  a  number  of  times, 
as,  syngige,  Prayer  III,  42,  syngode  (peccavi),  Ps.  L.  47,  further,  we  gesyn- 
godon  (the  devils),  Sat.  230,  fyrenum  gesyngad,  Beow.  2441,  swide  gesingod, 
L.  Prayer  III,  115. 

332.  A  term  much  employed  is  man,  ON.  mein,  crime,  wickedness, 
etc.  Of  the  occurrences  we  cite,  man  eft  gehwearf,  /  yfel  endeleas,  And. 
694,  man  and  morfior,  misdceda  worn  (referring  to  Nero),  Met.  IX,  7,  mana 
fela,  Prayer  IV,  50,  of  mane  {ex  iniquitate) ,  Ps.  LXXI,  14,  etc.,  etc.  The 
adjective  is  used  a  few  times,  mane  adas,  perjury,  Met.  IV,  48,  and  man 
inwitstcef  (nequitiae) ,  Ps.  LIV,  15.  A'  number  of  compounds  are  also 
encountered,  but  most  of  them  need  no  discussion  here.  The  poetic  terms 
will  be  found  in  the  table  at  the  end,  while  a  few,  such  as  mansceat,  usury, 
and  mdnswara,  perjury,  will  appear  in  the  subsequent  discussion. 

333.  Firen,  glossed  by  Grein  as  scelus,  crimen,  peccatum,  is  very  com- 
mon. We  note,  wr ape  fir ene,  Cr.  1313,  deopra  firena,  Gu.  830,  S35,newom 
dyde  /  his  lichoma  leahtra  firena,  Cr.  1099.  The  last  example,  referring  to 
Christ,  shows  a  massing  of  similar  words  in  order  to  emphasize  the  idea, 
a  procedure  often  employed  in  OE.  poetry.  As  in  the  case  of  syn  and  man, 
a  number  of  compounds  occur,  of  which  may  be  noted  as  significant 
deafifiren,  mortal  sin,  in  deadfirenum  forden,  Cr.  1207,  helfiren,  mortal  sin, 
ge  hellfirena  /  sweartra  geswicafi,  Partridge  6,  each  of  the  terms  occurring 
once.  Of  other  compounds  we  have  firencrceft,  wickedness,  Jul.  14,  firen- 
georn,  prone  to  sin,  as  in  firengeorne  men  (damned),  Cr.  1606,  firenlust, 
occurring  a  number  of  times,  e.g.  firenlustas,  Gu.  775,  purh  firenlustas 
fide  synne,  Cr.  l4S3,jyrenlustum,  Doom  160.  etc.,  firensynnig,  in  firensynnig 
folc,  Cr.  1379.  The  verb  firnian  is  found  once,  pa  forworhtan  (damned), 
pa  defyrnedon,  Sat.  620,  while  fymgende  ficesc  occurs  Doom  214.  Gefyrnian 
is  met  with  in  We  gefyrnedun  {peccavimus) ,  Ps.  CV,  6. 

334.  Leahtor,  m.,  vice,  crime,  etc.,  used  in  about  the  same  sense  as 
man,  firen,  is  found  frequently.  Lices  leahtor,  Gu.  1045,  leahtrumfa  (devils), 
Cr.  1539,  lehtrum  scyldige,  And.  1216,  leahtra  gehygdu,  Cr.  1315.  Of  the 
three  compounds  leahtorleas  belongs  here.  Thus,  leahtorlease,  Gu.  1060, 
El.  1208.  Often  the  fusion  has  not  taken  place,  as  for  instance  in  ealra 
leahtra  leas  (Adam  in  Paradise),  Gu.  804,  similarly  920,  1162,  etc.  Leah- 
torcwide   is   also   encountered,   after   leahtor cwidum,   Jul.    199,   signifying 


100  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [100 

blasphemy  of  heathen  gods,  being  on  a  plane  with  tome  teoncwide,  pe  pu 
tcelnissum,  205,  of  which  Helisius  speaks  as  pare  grimmestan  godscyld,  204. 

335.  Worn,  mn.,  stain,  spot,  defilement,  disgrace,  as  also  in  a  more 
general  sense,  is  common.  We  note,  wommas  worda  and  dceda,  Instruc- 
tions 79,  peak  hi  worn  don  /  ofer  meotudes  bibod,  70,  wommes  tacen,  Cr.  54, 
(ne  mcBg  hate  dcel  forbceman)  worn  of  pare  sawle,  1544,  forwunded  mid  worn- 
mum,  Rood  B,  14,  Adhweah  me  of  sennum  saule  fram  wammum  (ab  ini- 
quitate),  Ps.  L.  38.  The  adjective  is  also  used,  (be)  wommum  wyrhtum 
(secundum  peccata),  Ps.  CII  10.  The  interesting  compound  manwom  is 
found,  manwomma  gehwone  (may  be  seen  on  the  souls  of  the  damned),  Cr. 
1280.  Of  others  occur  wamcwide,  wamdad,  wamful,  wamsceafia,  wamscyldig, 
and  wamwyrcende,  either  once  or  only  a  few  times,  but  no  comment  would 
seem  necessary. 

336.  Another  term  of  general  import  used  in  the  poetry  is  gylt,  m., 
guilt,  sin,  offense,  from  Teut.  *gultiz.  We  note,  Forgyf  us,  gumena  weard, 
gyltas  and  synna  j  and  ure  leahtras  alet  (debita),  L.  Prayer  II,  19,  ma 
fremede  /  grimra  gylta,  Prayer  IV,  27,  (owiht)  heanra  gylta  (quidquam  cul- 
parum,  19),  Doom  39,  aglidene  gyltas  modgod  gode  gehalan  (qui  solet  allisos 
sanare,  24),8  47,  hu  mcere  is  /  seo  sofie  hreow  synna  and  gylta  (peccati  quan- 
tum valeat  confessio  vera,  28),  56,  henfia  and  gyltas  (crimina,  45),  88,  purh 
forman  gylt,  Gen.  998,  sie  minra  gylta  /  .  .  .  /  gemyndig,  El.  816.  Further 
examples  are,  gyltum  forgiefene,  Gu.  432,  fram  synnum  .  .  .  /  and  fram 
misdedum  minra  gylta  (a  peccatis),  Ps.  L.  84,  geltas  geclansa  (a  peccato),  39, 
gylta  geclansa(-),  112,  na  flu  ure  gyltas  egsan  gewrcece  (peccata),  Ps. 
LXXXIV,  3,  gyltas  georne  gode  andhette,  Ps.  L.  29.  The  verb  agyltan  is 
comparatively  rare.  We  note,  pam  pe  wid  us  oft  agyltad,  L.  Prayer  II,  24, 
we  agylt  habbafi,  III,  114,  ic  agylte  (deliqui),  Ps.  CXVIII,  67. 

337.  Scyld,  f.,  fault,  offense,  crime,  is  used  a  number  of  times.  We 
note,  pat  is  Euan  scyld  eal  forpynded,  Cr.  97,  on  eow  scyld  sitted  (Guthlac 
to  devils),  Gu.  449,  pe  da  scylde  worhton,  Dan.  266,  pe  wceron  butan  scylde 
swa  earmlice  acwealde,  Chr.  IV,  15,  me  modor  gebcer  /  in  scame  and  in  sceldum 
(in  peccatis  concepit  me  mater  mea),  Ps.  L.  63,  etc.  Of  compounds  may  be 
mentioned  frumscyld,  Sal.  445,  wyrd  (devil)  being  spoken  of  as  frumscylda 
gehwas  fader  and  modor.,  also  godscyld,  crime  against  heathen  gods,  Jul. 
204,  manscyld,  under  man,  scyldfrecu,  wicked  craving,  Gen.  898,  scyldful, 
occurring  a  few  times,  so  El.  310,  etc.,  scyldwrecende,  as,  Hell  eac  ongeat  / 
scyldwreccende  (sin-avenging  hell),  Cr.  1161,  scyldwyrcende,  Cr.  1487,  Ph. 
0  2,  Jul.  445,  El.  761. 

338.  To  these  terms  others  of  a  general  nature  might  be  added.  So 
unpeaw,  m.,  used  especially  in  Meters,  as,  pa  unpeawas,  XXII,  26,  pa 

8  Is  gyltas  a  gloss  for  aglidene,  or  should  one  translate,  past  sins?  Compare  note  in 
Bibl.  II.  p.  252. 


ioi]  sin  ioi 

unpeawas  celces  modes,  XXVI,  117,  his  unpeawas  ealle  hatian,  XXII,  32. 
The  specific  meaning  of  unpeaw  depends  upon  its  modifiers  or  the  context, 
for  while  in  modes  unpeaw,  Met.  XXVI,  112,  and  similarly  117,  the  mind 
is  referred  to,  the  passage ^>a  unpeawas  ealle,  Exhortation  41,  has  a  decidedly- 
carnal  flavor.  Fdcen,  n.,  with  its  various  compounds,  is  used  frequently, 
as  also  unriht  in  the  sense  of  imquitas  and  injustitia,  furthermore  uncyst, 
vice,  and  similar  terms,  which  we  pass  over. 

339.  In  entering  now  upon  a  discussion  of  specific  sins,  the  material 
at  hand  makes  it  advisable  to  follow  St.  Augustine's  division  of  Peccata 
Operis,  Oris,  and  Cordis.  This  plan  has  been  followed  by  Kahle,  I,  and 
what  he  says  there6  in  regard  to  the  difficulties  in  carrying  it  out  strictly 
applies  with  equal  force  to  OE.  poetry,  and  the  solution  adopted  by  him 
has  been  found  advantageous  also  in  our  case. 

II.     Peccata  Operis 

340.  Under  this  heading  carnal  sins,  or  sins  of  the  flesh,  may  con- 
veniently be  treated  first,  certain  others  following.  The  Latin  caro  as  the 
seat  of  sinful  lusts  and  desires  is  rendered  in  OE.  by  flcesc,  n.,  as  Doom 
175(87);  fyrngende  flcesc,  214,  translates  caro  luxurians,  107.  Its  use  may 
be  further  illustrated,  purh  flcesc  and  fyrenlustas "/  strange  gestryned,  Soul  44. 
Often  lust,  m.,  either  alone  or  modified,  expresses  carnal  sin.  In  the 
example  just  quoted  from  Soul  we  have  fyrenlustas,  44,  in  the  same  sense, 
me  fyrenlustas  /  pine  geprungon,  34,  possibly  also  in  pu  poet  selegescol, 
pcet  ic  me  swces  on  pe  /  gehalgode  hus  to  Wynne,  /  purh  firenlustas  fule  synne  / 
unsyfre  besmite,  Cr.  1483,  and  synlustas,  Exhortation  53.  But  frequently 
the  meaning  is  more  general,  though  sometimes  there  may  be  doubt  as  to 
the  exact  rendering,  as,  lices  lustas,  Jul.  409.  leaslice  Ikes  Wynne,  /  earges 
flceschoman  idelne  lust,  Cr.  1298,  compared  with  lices  leahtor,  Gu.  1045. 
In  this  general  sense  the  term  is  used,  purh  synlust,  Cr.  269,  purh  firena 
lust,  369,  idle  lustas  /  synwunde,  756,  probably  also  in  synna  lustas,  Gu.  84, 
ic  him  geswete  synna  lustas,  Jul.  369,  hi  firenlusta  frece  ne  wceron,  Met. 
VIII.  15. 

341.  Gcelsa  generally  translates  Latin  luxus,  luxuria.  Thus  we  note, 
his  gemyndum  modes  gcdsan,  Moods  11,  manigfealde  modes  gcelsan,  Jul.  366, 
pees  gatlsan  (luxuriae,  89),  Doom  179,  also  line  237,  where  celc  gcelsa  /  .  .  . 
scyldig  renders  scelerata  libido,  119.  A  word  closely  related  is  gdlnes, 
wantonness,  lusf,  occurring  once,  her  glad  leofast  on  galnysse  (servire  libidine 
gaudes,  88),  Doom  178.  Two  adjectives  formed  with  gal-  may  also  be 
noted  here,  gdlferhd,  Jud.  62,  and  gdlmod,  256,  both  referring  to  the  lust- 
ful Holofernes. 

342.  Wrdinnes,  wantonness,  renders  focus,  118,  Doom  235,  while  we 
find  weaxed  /  pcere  wrcennesse  woddrag  micel  Met.  XXV,  41. 

6  P.  398. 


102  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [102 

343.  Hefignes  is  encountered  a  few  times  in  Meters,  pas  lichoman  leah- 
tras  and  hefignes,  XXII,  25,  29,  mid  hefinesse  his  lichoman,  63. 

344.  The  unclean  lusts  and  desires  lead  to  various  sins,  some  of  which 
have  physical  causes.  Gluttony  must  be  mentioned  here,  pa  oferfylle 
we  find  Exhortation  75,  the  subject  having  been  discussed  before,  Warna 
pe  georne  wid  pare  wambefylle,  40,  with  its  dire  effects,  forpan  heo  pa  unpeo- 
was  ealle  gesomna'd,  / pe  pare  saide  swidost  deriafi,  /pat  is  druncennes  and 
dyrne  geligere,  41-3,  to  which  is  added  ungemet  wilnung  ates  and  slapes,  44. 
Curiously  enough,  the  author  mentions  not  only  that  one  may  drive  them 
away  mid  fastenum  /  and  forhafdnessum,  45-6,  but  also  mid  cyricsocnum 
cealdum  wederum,  47.  Druncennes  we  find  Exhortation  43,  druncen,  f.. 
occurs  in  Druncen  beorgpe,  Instructions  34,  pu  scealt  druncen  fleon,  Exhorta- 
tion 74. 

345.  Dyrne  geligere,  n.,  was  pointed  out  Exhortation  43  as  one  of  the 
results  of  gluttony.  Illicit  intercourse,  fornication,  or  adultery,  are  men- 
tioned several  times  in  the  poetry,  the  particular  term  used  in  each  case 
being  very  expressive.  From  forlicgan  we  have  lease  and  forlegene,  Cr. 
1611,  the  verb  also  being  employed,  gif  se  lichoma  forlegen  weorfied  /  unriht- 
hamede,  Met.  XVIII,  9.  Besides  unrihthamed,  n.,  occurring  in  the  passage 
just  quoted,  the  word  in  the  sense  of  adultery  or  fornication  is  found  Met. 
IX,  6,  referring  to  Nero.  A  related  term,  wohh  anted,  n.,  we  have  in  se  yfla 
unrihta  .  .  .  /  wrafia  willa  wohhamedes,  Met.  XVIII,  2.  The  sin  of 
sodomy  is  referred  to,  pat  mid  pam  halefium  haman  wolden  /  unscomlice, 
Gen.  2458-9.  Wiflufu  in  the  sense  of  adultery  is  used  Jul.  296,  fia  se  halga 
wer  J  pare  wiflufan  wordum  styrde,  Herod's  illicit  relation  being  further 
characterized  as  unrihtre  a,  297.  In  Instructions  the  son  is  warned  against 
idese  lufan,  36,  forfion  sceal  awiscmod  oft  sipian,  /  se  pe  gewitefi  in  wifes 
lufan,  I  fremdre  meowlan:  par  bid  a  firena  wen,  /  laZlicre  scome,  37-40. 

346.  Among  the  Peccata  0 peris  worship  of  heathen  gods  and  devils 
may  be  pointed  out  here.  Hadengield,  deofolgield,  etc.,  have  already 
been  discussed.  Witchcraft  and  magic  also  belong  here.  Gealdor,  n., 
incantatio,  we  have  in  (Circe)  cude  galdra  fela.  Met.  XXVI,  53,  and  the 
compound  in  Sygegealdor  ic  begale,  Charm  VIII,  6.  Galdorcraft  is  ascribed 
to  the  Jews,  Judea  galdorcraftum,  And.  166.  We  note  wiccraft  in  wic- 
crafta  wis,  Gifts  70,  and  wiccungdom,  Dan.  121,  both  referring  to  witch- 
craft. Drycraft  is  mentioned  several  times,  for  instance  in  Andreas,  the 
Jews  claiming  concerning  a  miracle  of  Christ,  pat  hit  drycraftum  gedon 
ware,  /  scingelacum,  765,  cude  (Circe)  galdra  fela  /  drijan  drycraftas, 
Met.  XXVI,  54,  drycraftum,  98,  and  mid  drycraftum,  102.  Scingelac  and 
scinlac,  n.,  magical  practices,  sorcery,  we  have  Jul.  214,  as  also  Met.  XXVI, 
74,  And.  766. 


103]  SIN  103 

347.  Other  sins  properly  coming  under  this  heading,  such  as  murder, 
theft,  etc.,  are  also  encountered,  but  since  they  offer  nothing  character- 
istically Christian,  no  treatment  of  them  seems  to  be  called  for. 

III.     Peccata  Oris 

348.  Here  belongs  bismer,  mnf.,  in  a  general  sense  insult,  and  when 
applied  to  God,  blasphemy.  Thus,  hi  gefremedan  oder  bysmer  {irritaverunt), 
Ps.  CV,  25,  him  hcrfdan  on  bysmer  {irritaverunt),  CVI,  10,  brigdefi  on  bysmer , 
Judg.  71.  As  occurrences  of  the  verb  we  note,  me  bysmer edon  .  .  .  /  weras 
wanscclige  (Jews  Christ),  And.  962,  naman  pinne  nu  bysmriad  (irritat), 
Ps.  LXXIII,  10,  gebysmerian,  as,  hi  heanne  god  gebysmredan  (exacerbaverunt 
Deum  excelsum),  LXXVII,  56.  In  the  sense  of  to  blaspheme  hyrwan  occurs, 
ac  hi  hyrwdon  me  (Jews  Christ),  El.  355.  Hyspan,  to  mock,  is  found  Cr. 
1121,  hysptun  (Christ)  hearmcwidum,  the  noun  being  hosp,  m.,  blasphemy, 
when  applied  to  the  Deity,  as,  (Ic  gepolade)  hosp  and  heardcwide,  Cr.  1444. 
In  a  somewhat  general  sense  hospword  is  found  And.  1315.  In  a  more 
specific  meaning  we  note,  pcet  pu  hospcwide,  /  cefst  ne  eofolsozc  cefre  ne 
fremme,  /  grimne  geagncwide  wifi  godes  bearne,  El.  523,  though  hospcwide  as 
also  the  other  terms  used  derive  the  specific  meaning  of  blasphemy  from 
the  context.  Onhyscan,  to  mock,  is  rare,  occurring  in  the  Psalms.  Of 
other  terms  may  be  noted  teoncwide,  on  pare  grimmesian  godscyld  wrecan,  / 
tome  teoncwide,  Jul.  205,  applied  to  heathen  gods,  the  word  also  being 
encountered  And.  771.  Teona,  in  the  sense  of  slander,  we  have  in  seo 
tunge  to  teonan  geclypede,  Doom  137.  Edwit,  n.,  scorn,  abuse,  is  used  a 
number  of  times.  The  damned  have  to  endure  deofles  spellunge,  /  hu  hie 
him  on  edwit  oft  asettad  /  swarte  suslbonan,  Sat.  638-40,  sprcEcon  him 
(Christ)  edwit,  Cr.  1122,  Cwepad  him  ptet  edwit  (exprobravertmt),  Ps. 
LXXXVHI,  44.  Edwltsprctce  (opprobrii)  we  have  in  verse  43,  as  also  CI, 
6  (exprobrabant),  while  Gu.  418  the  devils  are  called  edwltsprecan. 

349.  A  somewhat  different  sin  is  expressed  by  terms  such  as  idele 
sprccc,  L.  Prayer  III,  108,  and  mdnldel  word  (vanitatem) ,  Ps.  CXLIII,  9, 
13,  but  they  hardly  need  any  discussion.  Gielp,  mn.,  in  the  sense  of 
boasting,  though  also  in  that  of  pride,  arrogance,  is  rather  frequent.  Of 
the  fallen  angels  it  is  said,  Hccfdon  gielp  micel,  Gen.  25,  ivgcs  him  gylp  farod, 
69.  We  note  also,  ongan  da  gyddigan  purh  gylp  micel,  Dan.  599,  idel  gylp, 
Sat.  254,  Gu.  634.  A  number  of  compounds,  such  as  gilpsprazc,  are  also 
found.  The  verb  gielpan  is  very  frequent,  gealp  gramlice  gode  on  andan, 
Dan.  714,  firenum  gtdpon,  Gu.  236,  gylpafi  gramhydige  (gloriati  sunt),  Ps. 
LXXIII,  4,  manwyrhtan  mordre  gylpad  (peccalores  gloriabuntur),  XCIII, 
3,  etc.,  etc. 

350.  The  most  common  term  for  lie  is  lyge,  m.,  exemplified  by  mengan 
ongunnon  /  lige  wit)  sode,  El.  307,  lige  ne  wyrfie'S,  575,  pu  (devil)  us  gelcer- 


104  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [104 

dcest  durh  lyge  dinne,  Sat.  53.  Of  compounds  may  be  noted  lygesynnig, 
used  once,  El.  898,  as  an  epithet  of  the  devil,  lygeword,  occurring  a  few- 
times,  as  Dan.  720,  Ps.  LVII,  3  (falsa),  etc.  The  verb  is  leogan,  to  lie, 
wyrs  ded  sedeliehd  /  odd  e  dees  s  odes  ansceced,  Sal.  181,  Himjynd  godes  ftzene 
leogad  (mentiti  sunt  ei),  Ps.  LXXX,  14.  Aleogan  and  geleogan,  though  rare, 
also  occur.  Another  term  for  lie  is  lygen,  f.,  met  with  a  number  of  times 
in  Genesis,  thus,  mid  ligenum,  496,  531,  588,  etc.  Lygenword  in  the  dat. 
pi.  is  found  Gen.  699,  the  term  occurring  only  once.  A  liar  is  called  lyge- 
wyrhta  Sermon  Ps.  28,  11,  the  dat.  pi.  being  used.  Leas,  n.,  is  very  rare, 
pcet  leas,  El.  580,  and  lease  leng  gefylgad,  576.  The  adjective  is  more  fre- 
quent, occurring  for  instance  Cr.  1120,  and  Sermon  Ps.  28,  24.  It  may  be 
pointed  out  that  lease  sceaweras,  Beow.  253,  is  used  in  the  sense  of  spies., 
Leasung  is  rarely  met  with;  we  have  it  in  forlccte  pa  leasunga,  El.  689. 

351.  The  OE.  word  for  oath  is  ad.  While  the  idea  of  perjury  is 
expressed  by  ne  me  swor  jela  /  ada  on  unriht,  Beow.  2738,  we  read  on 
worulde  her  /  monnum  ne  denad  mane  adas,7  Met.  IV,  48.  The  perjurer 
is  called  an  adloga  Cr.  1605.  Mdnswara  is  applied  to  him  Cr.  193,  the 
plural  being  found  1612. 

352.  Tcbl,  f.,  slander,  calumny,  is  found  a  few  times,  e.g.,  ic  for  tcele  ne 
mceg  J  cenigne  moncynnes  mode  gelufian  /  eorl  on  eple,  Prayer  IV,  105. 
Talnis  in  the  sense  of  blasphemy  has  already  been  quoted  under  that 
heading.  The  verb  tozlan,  to  slander  or  backbite,  is  comparatively  rare, 
being  encountered  in  Eorl  oderne  mid  cefpancum  /  and  mid  tconwordum 
taled  behindan,  Sermon  Ps.  28,  4.  the  father  warning  his  son  Ne  beo  pu  no 
to  todende  ne  to  tweosprace,  Instructions  90.  In  the  sense  of  to  blaspheme 
is  found  {he)  his  godu  tcelde,  Jul.  598.  We  note  also,  pe  oft  wrade  me  trage 
tceldan  (qui  detrahunt  milii  apud  Dominum) ,  Ps.  CVIII,  20. 

353.  Wyrgdu,  f .,  curse,  is  used  a  number  of  times.  Thus  we  find, pe  eow 
ofwergde  (lysanpohte),  El.  295,  Euan  scyld  ealforpynded,  /  wargda  aivorpen, 
Cr.  98,  He  wolde  wergdu  wyrcean  georne  (dilexit  maledictionem),  Ps.  CVIII, 
17,  etc.  The  verb  is  wyrgan,  its  use  being  illustrated  by  (ongan  hine) 
wordum  wyrgean  (Noah  Ham),  Gen.  1594,  pa  ge  wergdon  pane,  j pe  eow  of 
wergde  (lysan  pohte),  El.  294,  gif  me  min  feond  fcecne  wyrged  (si  inimicus 
maledixisset  mihi),  Ps.  LIV,  11.  Not  seldom  dwyrgan  is  utilized,  often 
applied  in  the  sense  of  accursed  one  to  the  devil  or  the  lost,  as,  se  awyrgda, 
Sat.  316,  etc.,  awyrgda,  676,  etc.    For  further  remarks  see  chapter  XII,  431. 

IV.     Peccata  Cordis 

354.  Among  the  deadly  sins  as  conceived  by  the  Mediaeval  Church 
superbia  stood  first,  which  in  OE.  poetry  is  often  rendered  by  oferhygd,  n., 
examples  of  which  are  numerous.    Pride  was  at  the  bottom  of  the  rebellion 

7  OS.  menetk,  OHG.  meineid,  ON.  meineiZr. 


105]  SIN  105 

of  the  angels  against  God.  We  are  told  peet  wees  geara  iu  in  godes  rice,  / 
pcette  mid  en  glum  oferhygd  astag,  Moods  57-8,  so  that  hi  to  swice  pohten  / 
and  prymcyning  peodenstoles  /  ricne  beryfan,  61-2.  Of  the  chief  it 
is  said,  oer  don  engla  wear d  j or  oferhygde  j  dcel  on  gedwilde,  Gen.  22,  while 
eefst  and  oferhygd  and  pees  engles  mod,  29,  proved  the  downfall  of  the  angels, 
pa  blacan  feond  /  for  oferhygdum  ealle  forwurdon,  Sat.  196-7.  Of  other 
occurrences  of  the  term  we  note,  oferhygd  Dan.  490,  oferhyd,  495,  615, 
fore  oferhygdum,  Jul.  424,  on  oferhygdo,  Moods  23,  oferhygda  ful,  43,  simi- 
larly 53;  from  the  Psalms,  on  oferhygde  {in  superbia),  LVIII,  12, pe  oferhygd 
up  ahebbe  (qui  facit  superbiam),  C,  7,  etc.,  etc.  Oferhygdig,  n.,  occurs  Ps. 
LXXVII,  58  (aemulalionem) .  The  adjective  oferhygdig  is  found  a  number 
of  times,  especially  in  the  Psalms.  We  note,  englas  oferhydige,  Prayer  IV, 
55,  oferhidig  cyn  engla,  Gen.  66,  oferhydige  (superbos),  Ps.  CXVIII,  21,  22, 
oferhydigum  (superbis),  XCIII,  2,  etc. 

355.  In  order  to  express  superbia  other  terms  are  also  employed,  as, 
ofermede,  n.,  his  engyl  ongan  ofermede  micel  /  ahebban  wid  his  hearran7 
Gen.  293,  on  ofermedum,  Moods  75,  ofermedla,for  his  ofermedlan,  Dan.  657, 
onmedla,  a  number  of  times,  as,  onmedla  wees,  Cr.  815,  for  dam  anmedlan, 
Sat.  74,  for  anmeedlan,  429,  for  anmedlan,  Dan.  748.  We  have  further, 
ofermetto,  f.,  his  ofermetto  ealra  swidost  (chief  angel),  Gen.  351,  purh  ojer- 
metto,  332,  purh  ofermetto  ealra  swidost  (fallen  angels),  337,  ofermod,  n., 
se  engel  ofermodes,  Gen.  272,  for  his  ofermode,  Maldon  89.  The  adjective 
ofermod  is  found  a  number  of  times,  ofermod  wesan,  Gen.  262,  se  ofermoda 
cyning  (chief  angel  or  devil),  338,  Eala  ofermodan!  Met.  X,  18,  etc.  Ofer- 
modig  in  the  pi.  occurs  Ps.  CXVIII,  51  (superbi),  found  only  once,  as  also 
the  verb  ofermodgian,  Met.  XVII,  16.  Related  terms  are  heahmod,  adj., 
(Se  pe  June  sylfne)  ahefed  heahmodne,  Moods  54,  swidmbd,  Dan.  529,  etc., 
also  heahheort,  adj.,  Dan.  540. 

356.  Among  other  terms  for  superbia  we  note  wlenco,  f.,  wlenco  onwod, 
Gen.  2579,  hie  wlenco  onwod  at  winpege,  Dan.  17,  wlenco  gesceod,  678,  for 
wlence,  Gen.  1673,  etc.  Gal,  n.,  is  encountered  Gen.  327,  and  galscipe  341, 
in  each  case  the  term  probably  referring  t©  pride.  Bcelc,  L.  superbia, 
arrogantia,  we  find  in  bcelc  forlriged  (Assyrians),  Jud.  267,  and  bcelc  forbigde 
(rebellious  angels),  Gen.  54. 

357.  Nip,  m.,  L.  invidia,  is  used  in  referring  to  the  devil  Ph.  400,  as 
also  in  purh  ncedran  nip,  413.  We  have  wid  nipa  gehwam  469,  while  it  is 
said  of  Cain,  hygeweelm  asteah  /  beorne  on  breostum,  blatende  nid,  Gen. 
980-81,  brandhata  nid,  And.  768,  referring  to  the  devil,  etc.  Similarly, 
also  including  hatred,  cefest  is  employed.  We  have,  cefst  and  oferhygd  and 
pees  engles  mod  (devil),  Gen.  29,  ne  meahton  hy  (devils)  cefeste  anforlcetan, 
Gu.  158,   fore  cejstum,  684,  ealdfeondes  cefest,  Ph.  401,  cefstum  purh  inwit 


106  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [106 

(Christ  was  crucified),  El.  207,  is  gromra  to  fela  /  afestum  eaden,  Prayer 
IV,  46,  hie  (Jews)  for  cefstum  inwit  syredon,  And.  610,  hie  for  ozfstum 
unscyldigne  (Jeore  berceddon  .   .   .,  Jews  Stephen),  El.  496,  etc.,  etc. 

358.  Hete,  m.,  is  often  employed  in  the  sense  of  hatred,  also  having 
the  wider  meaning  of  hostility.  We  quote,  se  wees  lafi  gode,  /  on  hete  heofon- 
cyninges,  Gen.  648,  (Ic  fleah)  hlcefdigan  hete,  2273,  (godes  agen  beam)  purh 
hete  hengon  on  heanne  beam,  El.  424.  From  hete  a  number  of  compounds 
are  formed,  thus,  hetepanc,  ne  gerim  witan  /  heardra  heteponca,  Jul.  315, 
mid  his  hetepancum,  Beow.  475,  hetepancol,  Jud.  105,  hetlen,  full  of  hate, 
Cr.  364.  Feogan,  to  hate,  is  encountered  a  number  of  times,  especially 
in  the  Psalms.  We  note,  pa  pe  dryhtnes  a  /  feodon  purh  firencrceft,  Jul.  14, 
ieodon  purh  feondscipe,  El.  356,  pe  hine  feodan  {qui  oderunt  eum),  Ps. 
LXVII,  1,  de  fceste  cer  feodan,  drihten  (oderunt  te),  LXXXII,  2,  etc. 

359.  Forhycgan,  despise,  detest,  is  exemplified  by  flu  for  ho  godes  heofon- 
cyninges  word,  And.  1381,  sippan  he  pas  woruld  forhogde  (not  a  sin  here), 
Gu.  713,  hine  for  ho  god  est  (despexisti),  Ps.  LXXXVIII,  32.  Oferhycgan  is 
rare,  Utan  oferhycgan  helm  (God),  Sat.  252,  had  oferhogedon  halgan  lifes, 
Dan.  300.  Onscunian,  detest,  is  found  once,  onscunedon  pone  sciran 
scippend  eallra,  El.  370. 

360.  Yrre,  n.,  occurs  frequently,  especially  in  the  Psalms.  Irre,  Met. 
XXV,  51,  Yrre  ne  Icet  pe  cejre  gewealdan  /  heah  in  hrepre,  Instructions  83, 
yrre  for  ozfstum  (Cain),  Gen.  982,  Hyre  pa  purh  yrre  ageaf  andsware,  Jul. 
117,  godes  yrre  /  habban,  Gen.  695,  pa  to  yrre  beofi  ealle  gecigde  (eos  qui  in 
ira  provocant),  Ps.  LXVII,  7,  Swa  hi  his  yrre  oft  aweahtan  (in  iram  con- 
citaverunt),  LXXVII,  58,  etc.  The  adjective  is  frequently  found,  hccWd 
war  on  yrre,  Jud.  225,  weard  yrre  anmod  cyning,  Dan.  224,  on  yrre  mod  eft 
gebrohtan,  Ps.  LXXVII,  40,  etc.  Among  other  terms  may  be  noted  yrsung, 
thrice  used  in  Meters,  while  the  adjective  yrringa  and  the  verb  yrsian  are 
also  rare. 

361.  sEbylg,  n.,  is  found  once,  gecefnan  cebylg  godes,  Gu.  1211,  abylgd, 
{.,  in  the  sense  of  anger,  He  qpyligde  on  hi  bitter  and  yrre  sarlic  sende  (misit 
in  eos  iram  indignationis  suae),  Ps.  LXXVII,  49,  cebylgnes,  L.  indignatio, 
he  him  ozbylgnesse  oft  gefremede,  Moods  71,  and  cebylignes  eac  yrres  pines 
(indignatio  irae  tuae),  Ps.  LXVIII,  25.  Belgan,  to  become  indignant,  angry, 
is  frequently  employed,  abelgan  and  gebelgan  being  also  found.8  Abylgan, 
to  anger,  offend,  we  have  in  Hi  hine  on  gepeahte  oft  abylgdan  (exacer- 
baverunt),  Ps.  CV,  32,po3t  he  ne  abadige  beam  waldendes,  Sat.  195.  Among 
other  terms  we  note  hatheortnes ,  anger,  fury,  used  once,  mid  dam  swidan 
welme  J  hatheortnesse,  Met.  XXV,  47,  torn,  OHG.  zorn,  penden  him  hyra 
torn  toglide,  Gn.  Ex.  182,  his  torn  wrecan,  Gen.  2508,  etc.,  Wceron  teonsmi'das 

8  For  examples  see  Sprachschatz. 


107]  SIN  107 

tomes  fulle,  Gu.  176,  etc.  Of  compounds  appear  such  as  gartom,  fighting 
rage,  gartom  geotad  gifmni  deofle,  Sal.  145,  tornmod,  once,  Gu.  621,  and 
tomwracu,  once,  Gu.  272.  It  may  be  pointed  out  here  that  the  same  terms 
are  occasionally  also  applied  to  the  Deity,  and  merely  for  the  purpose  of 
illustration  we  have  at  times  added  an  example  thus  used. 

362.  Gitsung,  desire,  covetousness,  avarice.  Deos  gitsung,  Met.  VIII, 
43,  sio  gitsung,  46,  grundleas  gitsung  gilpes  and  ozhta,  VII,  15,  gitsunge 
gelpes,  X,  13,  notes  py  he  giemde  purh  gitsunga  /  lanes  lifwelan,  Gu.  121-2. 
From  the  Psalms  we  note,  nalazs  me  gitsung  fomiman  mote  (in  avaritiam), 
CXVIII,  36,  ongunnan  gitsunge  began  (concupierunt  concupiscentiam) ,  CV, 
12,  for  gitsunga  (libidine  percitus,  Grein),  Ps.  L.  24.  Of  compounds  occur 
woruldgitsung,  Met.  VII,  12.  W oruldgltsere  is  found  Met.  XIV,  1,  and 
feohgitsere  VIII,  55.  Closely  related  are  (to)  feohgifre,  Wand.  68,  godes 
gradig,  Sal.  344,  and  similar  terms.  Fcesthafolnes  is  found  once,  Doom  236, 
rendering  dira  cupido,  119.  Mdnsceat,  m.,  usury,  occurs  once,  He  of 
mansceatte  and  of  mane  eac  sniome  hiora  sawle  softe  alysde  (ex  usuris  et 
iniquitate),  Ps.  LXXI,  14. 

363.  Tweogan,  to  doubt,  is  sometimes  found  in  the  religious  sense. 
Thus,  [No  heo  tirmeotudes]  tweode  gifena  /  in  dys  ginnan  grunde,  Jud.  1, 
huru  cetpccm  ende  ne  tweode  /  pees  leanes,pe  heo  lange  gyrnde,  346,  ne  getweode 
treow  in  breostum,  Gu.  515,  tweogende  mod,  And.  771,  in  contrast  to  which 

may  be  noted  hyht  untweondne  on  pone  ahangnan  Crist,  El.  797. 

« 

364.  A  noun  ungeleafa  does  not  occur  in  the  poetry,  though  we  have 
the  adjective  once,  ungeleafe  menu  (non  credentes),  Ps.  LXVII,  19.  The 
idea  is  variously  paraphrased,  but  we  need  not  discuss  all  the  expres- 
sions here.  Not  seldom  unbelief  or  godlessness  is  represented  as  error 
or  deception.  Gedwild  is  used  for  instance,  hean  prowian  /  pinra  dceda 
gedwild,  Gen.  922/ engla  weard  for  oferhygde  /  dcel  on  gedwilde,  23.  Misge- 
dwild  is  also  found,  pait  we  sodfeestra  /purh  misgedwield  mod  oncyrren,  Jul. 
326.  Gedwola  is  used  several  times,  as  for  instance,  in  gedwolan  hweorfan, 
Dan.  22,  gedwolan  hyran,  Cr.  344,  gedwolan  dreogan,  Gu.  230,  practically 
in  the  sense  of  idolatry,  deofulgild  todraf  and  gedwolan  fylde,  And.  1688, 
purh  deopne  gedwolan  deofles  larum,  611.  It  is  said  of  Cyriacus,  (witisoc) 
deofulgildum  and  gedwolan  fylde,  El.  1040,  and  in  reference  to  the  Jews, 
purh  deofles  spild  in  gedwola  lange  /  acyr red  f ram  Criste,  1118-19.  Arius' 
heresy  is  labeled  Arrianes  /  gedwola,  Met.  I,  40-41.  The  verb  gedwelian  in 
the  religious  sense  we  have  exemplified  in  dcedum  gedwolene  (people  of 
Sodom  and  Gomorrah),  Gen.  1936,  similarly  Jul.  13. 

365.  Untreow,  f.,  we  find  in  a  secular  sense  Met.  II,  13,  in  the  religious 
meaning  Gen.  773.  Untreowe,  perfidious,  is  also  encountered,  Wcerleas 
mon  and  wonhydig,  /  oztrenmod  and  ungetreow,  Gn.  Ex.  163.     Ungetreowd 


108  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [108 

we  have  in  tyhfi  me  untreowda,  Gen.  581.  The  cowardly  companions  of 
Beowulf  are  called  treowlogan,  2847.  Cowardice,  perfidy,  and  disloyalty 
would  of  course  be  regarded  as  cardinal  sins  by  the  Germanic  mind. 

366.  TJnsodjcestnes  occurs  only  once  in  poetry,  Ps.  LIV,  9,  (injustitia). 
The  adjective  is  also  rare,  we  unsodfceste  ealle  war  on  (injuste),  Ps.  CV,  6, 
unsodfcestne  wer  (virum  injustum),  CXXXIX,  11.  Unriht  in  the  sense  of 
injustice  is  also  found. 

367.  As  in  ON.,9  the  expression  for  conscientia  in  OE.  poetry  is  not 
always  the  same,  the  idea  being  foreign  to  the  heathen  mind.  Besides  it 
is  seldom  mentioned.  Once  we  have  breostgehygd,  nf.,  ac  ealle  purhyrnd 
.  .  .  I  breostgehygda,  Doom  172.  Wisdom  seems  to  be  regarded  as  the 
keeper  of  the  soul  Cr.  1550-53,  (we  magon)  on  an  cwepan,  /  pcet  se  sawle 
weard/lifes  wisdom  forlor en  hcebbe,  /  se  pe  nune  giemed.  .  .  .  In  this  case 
as  in  the  following  the  reference  is  not  as  clear  as  we  might  wish  it  to  be, 
ponne  se  weard  sivefed,  /  sawele  hyrde:  bid  se  sleep  to  f (est/  bisgum  gebunden, 
Beow.  1741-  3. 

368.  God  tempts  or  probes  man  in  order  to  find  out  his  position.  The 
word  used  is  costian,  for  instance,  pa  pees  rinces  se  rica  ongan  /  cyning 
costigan  (God  Abraham),  Gen.  2846.  The  devil  also  tempts  man,  but  with 
the  object  of  seducing  him,  costian  also  being  employed.  Regarding  the 
tempting  of  Christ  we  hear,  pcet  he  (devil)  costode  cyning  alwihta,  Sat.  671. 
Of  St.  Guthlac  it  is  said,  He  gecostad  weard,  t24.  The  noun  is  costung,  a 
word  comparatively  rare,  Ne  Icet  usic  costunga  cnyssan  to  swide,  L.  Prayer  I, 
9,  (Ne  Iced  pu  us)  in  costunge  (temptationem) ,  II,  28,  and  na  us  pu  ne  Icet  lade 
beswican  I  on  costunga  (temtationem) ,  III,  105.  We  have  the  term  also  in 
sindan  costinga  /  .  .  .  monge  arisene,  Gu.  9,  and  Wees  seo  cereste  earmra 
gcesta  I  costung  ofercumen,  409.  Frasung,  temptation,  is  found  in  frasunga 
fela,  Gu.  160. 

369.  The  devil  himself  describes  his  infernal  strategy  at  some  length 
in  Juliana,  under  the  figure  of  assailing  a  castle,  etc.  To  express  his  pro- 
cedure in  winning  man  as  described  by  him  in  language  not  figurative, 
we  quote  the  summary  of  Abbetmeyer10  on  Jul.  362  ff.:  "Wherever  he 
(namely  the  devil)  finds  the  mind  steadfast,  he  arouses  wanton  pride  by 
inspiring  fallacious,  delusive  thoughts  ('suggestio');  he  makes  sinful  lusts 
appear  attractive,  until  the  mind  obeys  his  teaching  ('delectatio');  he  sets 
it  so  on  fire  with  sins  that,  all  ablaze,  it  will  no  longer  tarry  in  the  house  of 
prayer  for  love  of  vice,  but  do  the  devil's  will  ('consensus'). 

•  Kahle,  I,  p.  406-7. 

10  Old  English  Poetical  Motives  Derived  from  the  Doctrine  of  Sin,  p.  38. 


109]  SIN  109 

370.  The  work  of  the  devil  is  often  expressed  by  beswican,  to  deceive, 
defraud,  seduce,  a  term  also  used  in  a  more  general  sense,  as,  od  pcet  hie 
langung  beswac,  /  eordan  dreamas  eces  rcedes,  Dan.  29,  We  purh  gifre  mod  / 
beswican  us  sylfe,  Har.  96.  In  regard  to  the  devil  the  term  is  used  fre- 
quently, so  oppozt  hy  beswiead  synna  weardas,  Judg.  16,  na  us  pu  ne  Icet  lade 
beswican  /  on  costunga,  L.  Prayer  III,  104,ponne  hy  sofifcestra  sawle  willa'8  / 
synnum  beswican  and  sear  ocrazf turn,  Gu.  540,  (devil)  wolde  dearnunga  driht- 
nes  geon gran,  /  mid  mandcedum  menn  beswican,  /  forlcedan  and  fori cer an, 
Gen.  451,  etc.,  etc.  As  exemplified  in  the  last  passage,  forlcedan  and 
forlaran  are  also  employed.  We  note  further,  (woldun  hy  geteon)  in 
orwennysse  (despair),  Gu.  547,  forteon  in  ponan  us  cer  purh  synlust  se  swearta 
gcBst  I  forteah  and  fortylde,  Cr.  270,  fortyhtan,  found  once,  swa  se  ealda 
feond  I  forlcerde  ligesearwum,  leode  forty hte,  El.  208.  Dimscua,  darkness, 
is  employed,  under  dimscuan  deofles  larum,  And.  141.  Gespan,  n.,  seduc- 
tion, we  find  once,  deofles  gespon,  Gen.  720,  the  verb  spanan  occurring  in 
mid  listum  speon  /  idese  on  pcet  unriht,  Gen.  588,  similarly  687;  bespanan 
we  have  once,  ic  H erode  /  in  hyge  bispeon  (to  behead  John  the  Baptist), 
Jul.  294.  Scyccan,  in  the  sense  of  to  seduce,  we  have  in  Me  ncedre  beswac 
and  me  neodlice  /  to  forsceape  scyhte,  Gen.  898.  Scucca  is  the  seducer, 
devil,  demon,  as,  scuccum  and  scinnum,  Beow.  939,  sceuccum  (daemoniis), 
Ps.  CV,  27,  scyccgyld  occurring  in  sceuccgyldum  (sculptilibus) ,  26.  With 
scuccum  and  scinnum,  Beow.  939,  compare  Swa  bid  scinna  peaw,  /  deofla 
wise,  Whale  31. 


110  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [110 


CHAPTER  X 
FAITH,  CONVERSION,  PENANCE 

371.  The  teachings  of  Christianity  demand  of  man  that  he  forsake  sin 
and  lead  a  new  life  in  Christ.  By  the  grace  of  God  faith  accomplishes  this 
regeneration  or  rebirth,  and  remains  the  basis  from  which  Christian  vir- 
tues and  good  works  proceed  as  natural  and  inevitable  evidences  of  sancti- 
fication. 

I.     Faith 

372.  The  New  Testament  irians,  which  the  Vulgate  renders  by  fides, 
is  expressed  in  OE.  by  geleafa,  OHG.  galauba.1  As  in  the  case  of  OHG., 
geleafa  may  be  used  in  both  the  subjective  and  the  objective  sense,  though 
the  former  is  much  more  common.  In  the  objective  meaning  it  occurs  only 
a  few  times,  as  in  the  missionary  command,  bodiad  and  bremad  beorhtne 
geleafan,  Cr.  483,  and  similarly,  Bodiad  after  burgum  beorhtne  geleafan, 
And.  335. 

373.  As  a  rule,  subjective  faith  is  expressed  by  geleafa,  often  a  modifying 
adjective  also  being  employed.  Thus  we  have,  An  is  geleafa,  an  lifgende, 
Maxims  8,  his  geleafa  weard  /  fcest  on  ferhde,  El.  1035,  heo  ahte  trumne 
geleafan  /  a  to  dam  celmihtigan,  Jud.  6,  mid  fceste  geleafan,  Charm  I,  34, 
Ic  hcebbe  me  fcestne  geleafan  /  up  to  pam  cdmihtegan  gode,  Gen.  543,  (ne 
hcefdon)  on  hiora  fyrhpe fcestne  geleafan  (necfideles  habiti  sunt),  Ps.  LXXVII, 
36,  mid  rihte  geleafan,  Jud.  97,  sodne  geleafan,  89,  345,  beorhtne  geleafan, 
Gu.  770,  leohtne  geleafan,  El.  491,  (mid)  leohte  geleafan,  Jul.  653,  leohte 
geleafan,  El.  1136,  Gu.  624,  1084,  Ph.  479,  leohtran  geleafan  in  lijfruman, 
Dan.  643,  leohtes  geleafan,  Jul.  378. 

374.  The  verb  is  gelefan,  gelifan,  gelyfan,  generally  expressing  the 
L.  credere,  though  also  rendering  fidere  and  sperare.  As  gelefan  is  of  such 
frequent  occurrence,  only  a  few  characteristic  examples  need  be  given  here, 
Ne  wile  Sarran  sod  gelyfan  /  wordum  minum,  Gen.  2388,  Ic  on  sunu  pinne 
sodne  gelyfe,  Creed  9,  pe  gelyfad  on  lyfiendne  god,  Prayer  III,  29,  Lisse  ic 
gelyfe  leahtra  gehwylces,  Creed  54,  noldan  his  wundrum  wel  gelyfan  (non 
crediderunt  in  mirabilibus  ejus),  Ps.  LXXVII,  31,  Nu  is  to  gelyfenne  to  dan 
leofan  gode,  Chr.  IV,  13. 

375.  Only  a  few  compounds  are  met  with  in  the  poetry.  Ungeleaf  has 
already  been  cited  in  364.  The  ace.  or  inst.  of  sodgeleafa  is  found  Gen. 

1  For  this  chapter  compare  Raumer,  p.  388  ff.,  Kahle,  I,  407  ff.,  II,  152-3. 


[Ill  FAITH,  CONVERSION,  PENANCE  111 

2325.  Geleajful  occurs  a  few  times,  El.  959  and  as  geleafull  1047  referring 
to  Cyriacus,  Ofer  geleajfulle  eorfibugende  (adfideles  terrae),  Ps.  C,  6,  wordum 
(ac)  geleafullum  (fidei  sermone,  31),  Doom  61.  Geleafsum  occurs  once, 
pin  gewitnes  is  weorcum  geleafsum  (testimonia  tua  credibilia  facta  sunt), 
Ps.  XCII,  6. 

376.  Sometimes  other  terms  than  geleafa  are  used  to  express  sub- 
stantially the  same  idea.  Treow,  f.,  is  not  infrequently  employed.  We 
note,  huru  treow  in  pe  (Virgin  Mary)  /  weor'dlicu  wunade,  Cr.  82,  ge  mid 
treowe  to  me  /  on  hyge  hweorfafi,  Partridge  5,  Rio  in  gceste  bar  /  halge 
treowe,  Jul.  29,  sofie  treowe  and  sibbe  mid  eow  /  healdad  est  heortan,  655, 
(Noah)  Hcefde  him  on  hredre  halige  treowa,  Ex.  366,  (no)  treow  getweode, 
Gu.  311,  him  ne  getweode  treow  in  breostum,  515,  pat  his  treowa  sceal  /  and 
his  modge'donc  ma  up  ponne  nider  /  habban  to  heofonum,  Met.  XXXI,  18, 
as  also  Til  hip  se  pe  his  treowe  gehealded,  Wand.  112.  Hygetreow  we  have 
in  (God  promises  Isaac)  him  sode  to  /  modes  ware  mine  gelataai,  /  halige 
higeireowa,  Gen.  2367. 

377.  Treowan  and  getreowan  are  sometimes  used  in  the  same  sense  as 
gelefan.  Thus,  aghwylcum,  pe  him  on  treowad  (omnes  qui  confidunt  in 
eis),  Ps.  CXIII,  17,  pu  in  ecne  god  / prymsittendne  pinne  getreowdes,  Jul. 
435,  etc.,  pape  on  drihten  heora  dcedum  getreowafi  (qui  confidunt  in  Domino), 
Ps.  CXXIV,  1.  Especially  noteworthy  is  the  use  in  Creed,  where  getreowan 
and  gelefan  are  used  interchangeably.  We  have,  Eac  ic  gelyfe,  pat  syn 
leofe  gode,  49,  and  ic  gemanscipe  marne  getreowe  (pinra  haligra),  52,  Lisse 
ic  gelyfe  leahtra  gehwylces,  54,  and  ic  pone  arest  ealra  getreowe,  55. 

378.  The  Christian  idea  of  hope  is  of  course  closely  related  to  that  of 
faith.  Sometimes  the  terms  are  almost  synonymous  in  OE.  poetry. 
Among  other  examples  we  note  Gesette  minne  hyht  on  pec,  Prayer  IV,  36, 
Uton  us  to  pare  hyde  hyht  stapelian,  Cr.  865,  hyht  untweondne  on  pone 
ahangnan  Crist,  El.  797,  berad  in  breostum  beorhtne  geleafan,  /  haligne 
hyht,  Gu.  771;  hopa'd  to  pam  ecum,  Met.  VII,  44,  se  miccla  hopa  to  pinum 
halende,  Exhortation  10. 

II.     Conversion 

379.  Conversion  is  expressed  in  different  ways  in  OE.  poetry,  the 
turning  away  from  sin  and  the  turning  to  God  being  especially  emphasized. 
In  order  to  indicate  conversion,  the  New  Testament  uses  the  terms  kiri- 
(TTpecpeLv,  <TTpa.iprivai,  and  kincTTpoiprj,  rendered  in  the  Vulgate  by  convertere, 
converti,  and  conversio.  These  are  concrete  terms  used  in  every-day  life, 
metaphorically  expressing  actions  taking  place  in  the  religious  life  of 
individuals.  In  OHG.,  ON.,  and  OE.  similar  expressions  are  employed. 
In  OE.  poetry  cyrran,  which  as  a  rule  denotes  to  turn  in  a  profane  sense, 


112  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [112 

is  used  to  indicate  conversion,  as,  Ac  du  synfulle  simle  leerdes,  /  deet  Jiio 
cerrende  Criste  herdon,  Ps.  L.  56.  Gecyrran  in  the  sense  of  to  convert  is  used 
a  few  times,  of  which  examples  we  note,  Gecyr  mine  sawle  clcene  on  pine 
r cedes  resie  {converter e  anima  mea  in  requiem  tuam),  Ps.  CXIV,  7,  etc., 
deet  icfram  deem  synnum  self  a  gecerre,  Ps.  L.  64,  dcet  hie  arlease  eft  gecerdan  / 
to  Mora  self r a  saula  Jiiorde  (et  impii  ad  te  convertentur) ,  106-7.  On  the  other 
hand,  apostacy  is  similarly  expressed  as  a  turning  away  from  God,  acyrred 
cudlice  from  Cristes  ce,  Jul.  411,  acyrred  from  Criste,  El.  1119. 

380.  Other  expressions  are  also  used.  We  note  for  to  convert,  fulwiad 
folc  under  roderum,  /  Jiweorfad  to  heofonum,  Cr.  485,  pe  die  geJiweorfest  to 
heofonleohte  /  purh  minne  naman,  And.  974,  GeJiweorf  us  tirade,  heelend 
drihten  (Converte  nos  Deus,  salutaris  noster),  Ps.  LXXXIV,  4,  wenede  to 
wuldre  weorod  unmcete,  And.  1682,  sippan  June  inlyhte,  se  pe  lifes  weg  / 
gcestum  gearwad,  Gu.  70-71,  Leerde  pa  pa  leode  on  geleafan  weg,  And.  1680, 
Ongon  heg  pa  leer  an  and  to  lofe  trymman  /  folc  of  firenum,  Jul.  638-9,  etc. 
To  be  converted  is  also  expressed  in  many  different  ways,  Jiweorfan  Jiige- 
blide  fram  Jielltrafum  /  purh  Andreas  este  lare  /  to  fcegeran  gefean,  And. 
1691-3,  he  pcet  betere  geceas,  /  wuldres  wynne  and  pam  wyrsan  widsoc,  / 
deofolgildum  and  gedwolan  fylde,  /  unrihte  ce,  El.  1038-41,  inbyrded  breost- 
sefa  on  pat  betere  lif,  /  gewended  to  wuldre,  1045-6,  ge  mid  treowe  to  me  on 
hyge  Jiweorfad,  Partridge  5-6,  (Ic  eom)  leomum  inlyJited  to  pam  leofestan  / 
ecan  earde,  Gu.  627,  pcet  sode  leoJit  sweotole  ancnawan  /  leoJite  geleafan, 
Met.  V,  25-6,  peer  manegum  weard  mod  onlihted,  /  hige  onhyrded  purh  his 
halig  word,  Ap.  52-3. 

III.     Penance 

381.  In  order  to  express  repentance  the  New  Testament  uses  neravoia, 
which  the  Vulgate  renders  by  poenitentia.  According  to  Catholic  doctrine 
poenitentia  is  divided  into  three  parts,  contritio,  confessio,  and  satisfactio. 
In  OHG.  hriuwa,  bijihti,  and  buoza  are  employed,  though  not  always  in 
their  strict  sense.2  In  OE.  poetry  no  such  definite  distinction  can  be  made. 
As  a  rule  hreow  is  used  for  contritio,  no  distinct  term  for  confessio  occurs, 
though  scrift  in  the  sense  of  confessor  is  found,  while  bot  would  seem  to 
be  more  inclusive  than  satisfactio. 

382.  Hreow,  f.,  is  used  a  few  times,  so  in  the  strictly  religious  sense, 
bute  him  cer  cume  /  hreow  to  heortan,  cer  Jie  hionan  wende,  Met.  XVIII,  11, 
ne  Jie  wihte  Jiafad  /  hreowe  on  mode,  Cr.  1558,  and  somewhat  more  general, 
hreowum  gedreahte,  (overwhelmed  with  sorrow  at  the  destruction  of  the 
world),  994,  peer  neefre  Jireow  cymed  (in  Heaven),  1675.  In  Doom  56  the 
term  is  more  inclusive  than  contritio,  for  Jiu  micel  for  stent  and  hu  meere  is  / 
seo  sode  hreow  synna  and  gylta  renders  the  Latin  peccati  quantum  valeat 

2  Raumer,  p.  393. 


113]  FAITH,  CONVERSION,  PENANCE  113 

confessio  vera,  28.  Of  compounds  hreowcearig  occurs  a  few  times,  so  in  the 
strictly  religious  sense,  hreowcearigum  help,  Cr.  367.  I c  peer  licgende  lange 
hwile  I  beheold  hreowcearig  hcelendes  treow  we  read  Rood  B,  25.  The  saint's 
companion  is  characterized  as  hyge  hreowcearig,  Gu.  1026,  while  in  a  general 
sense  the  term  is  also  applied  to  the  devil  Jul.  536.  Hreowig  is  used  once, 
Nu  wit  hreowige,  Gen.  799,  referring  to  Adam  and  Eve.  Hreowigmod  is 
rare,  occurring  in  pcet  wif  (Eve)  gnornode ,  /  hof  hreowigmod,  Gen.  771, 
while  the  plural  in  the  profane  sense  is  applied  to  the  Assyrians  Jud.  290. 
Hreowlic  in  the  religious  meaning  we  have  in  mid  hreowlicum  tear nm,  Doom 
75,  rendering  the  L.  lacrymis  profusis,  40.  We  add  here  a  description  of 
the  contritio,  hwi  not  jeor mast  pu  /  mid  teara  gyte  tome  synne  {Cur  tua  non 
purgas  lacrymis  peccata  profusis,  40),  Doom  78-9,  and  Nu  pu  scealt  greotan, 
tearas  geotan  (Hetibus  assiduis  est,  42),  82. 

383.  The  verb  is  hreowan,  ahreowan  and  gehreowan  also  being  found. 
Adam  says,  Nu  me  mceg  ahreowan,  Gen.  816,  me  nu  hreowan  mceg,  819,  to 
which  Eve  rejoins,  onpinum  hyge  hreowan,  ponne  hit  me  cet  heortan  defi,  826. 
We  quote  also,  him  (Jews)  pcet  (Crucifixion  of  Christ)  gehreowan  mceg, 
Sat.  540,  Him  (devil)  pcet  eft  gehreaw,  374,  for'don  me  hreowelS  nu,  pcet  ic 
firene  on  fiefremede  ( — quia  peccavi  tibi),  Ps.  XL,  4,  to  which  may  be  added, 
hreaw  hine  (God)  swiSe  (that  he  had  created  Adam),  Gen.  1276,  etc. 

384.  Confession  is  expressed  in  OE.  prose  by  scrift,  m.,  etymologically 
connected  with  L.  scriptum.3  The  term  has  also  the  meaning  of  confessor 
and  prescribed  penalty.  ON.  uses  script,  scrift,  and  though  the  word  is 
found  in  other  Teutonic  dialects,  the  meaning  penance,  confession,  is 
confined  to  English  and  Scandinavian.  The  verb  serif  an  in  the  sense  of 
to  judge  appears  in  OE.  poetry,  {seo  prynis)  scrifed  bi  gewyrhtum,  Jul.  728, 
scyppend  scinende  scrifed  bi  gewyrhtum  /  eall  after  ryhte,  Cr.  1220,  while 
ior  serif  an  in  the  sense  of  to  condemn  is  encountered,  sipfian  him  (Grendel) 
scyppend  forscrif en  hcefde,  Beow.  106,  and  hu  he  pcet  scyldi  werud  for  serif  en 
hcefde,  Sat.  33. 

385.  Scrift  in  the  sense  of  confessor  occurs  once  in  the  poetry,  ne  mceg 
purh  pcet  flees  c  se  scrift  /  geseon  on  pcere  sawle,  hwceper  him  mon  soft  pe  lyge  / 
saga~5  on  hine  sylfne,  /  ponne  he  pa  synne  bigced,  Cr.  1306.  If  bigan  has 
here  the  sense  of  to  confess,  it  is  the  only  example  of  such  occurrence.4 

tThe  confessor  is  called  godes  bodan  (dat.),  1305.  We  point  out  here,  as 
has  also  been  done  under  contritio,  that  seo  sode  hreow,  Doom  56,  renders 
confessio  vera,  28. 

386.  Satisf actio,  penance,  forms  the  third  part  of  the  poenitentia. 
Of  the  Germanic  languages  OHG.  has  buoza,  OFris.  bote,  OS.  bota,  ON.  bot, 

3  For  the  etymology  compare  NED.  under  shrift,  also  Kahle,  I,  pp.  409-10. 

4  Compare  note  in  Cook's  Christ,  p.  204. 


114  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [114 

while  OE.  uses  bot,  f.,  the  general  meaning  of  which  is  advantage,  com- 
pensation. However,  in  the  poetry  its  meaning  is  more  inclusive  than  the 
L.  satisf actio,  as  for  instance,  gif  we  sona  eft  /  para  bealudceda  bote  gefrem- 
map,  El.  515,  and  se  ~de  (Cyriacus)  to  bote  gehwearf  /  purh  beam  godes,  1125. 
D&dbot  is  met  with  once  in  the  poetry,  pat  man  her  wepe  /  and  dcedbote 
do,  Doom  85,  rendering  Poenituisse  juvat,  line  43.  The  verbs  betan  and 
gebetan  are  also  found,  in  the  religious  sense,  peak  he  l&tlicor  /  bette  bea- 
lodcede,  Prayer  IV,  34,  and  forfion  he  gebette  balanida  hord  /  mid  ea'Smede 
ingepance,  Ps.  L.  151-2.  Unbeted  occurs  only  once,  worn  unbeted  (guilt  or 
stain  unatoned),  Cr.  1312. 


115]  CHRISTIAN  VIRTUES,  QUALITIES,  AND  GOOD  WORKS  115 


CHAPTER  XI 
CHRISTIAN  VIRTUES,  QUALITIES,  AND  GOOD  WORKS 

I.     Virtues 

387.  In  order  to  render  Latin  virtus  OE.  prose  sometimes  uses  mcegen, 
n.,  a  term  generally  expressing  vigor,  power,  might.1  In  OE.  poetry 
mcegen  as  a  rule  has  the  latter  meaning,  though  in  a  passage  like  of  mcBgne 
in  mcBgen  mcerpum  tilgan,  Cr.  748,  it  may  perhaps  be  rendered  by  virtue.2 
This  is  probably  the  case  in  ne  pan  mcegen  hwyrfe  in  hee'dendom,  Dan.  221. 
In  other  passages  as  Hio  (namely  prudence)  is  poet  mazste  mcegen  monnes 
saule,  Met.  XX,  202,  and/>a  fie  snyttro  mid  eow  /  mcegn  and  modcrceft  mceste 
hcebban,  El.  408,  the  connotation  seems  to  represent  the  transitional  stage. 
Another  word  closely  approaching  in  meaning  to  virtue  is  dugup,  {.,  power, 
efficiency.  In  dugufium  bedeled,  Sat.  122,  it  may  occur  in  the  sense  of 
power,  but  has  the  meaning  virtue  in  Swa  is  dryhten  god  dreama  rozdend  / 
eallum  eafimedum  oprum  gesceaftum,  /  duguda  gehwylcre,  Panther  57,  which 
Thorpe3  renders  "  to  everything  of  virtue, "  and  Grein4  "  den  edelen  anderen 
Geschopfen,"  with  which  compare  dugude  beswicad,  seduce  the  virtuous, 
Whale  33.  Cyst,  mf.,  really  choice,  is  sometimes  used  in  the  sense  of  virtue. 
Thus,  his  giefe  bryttafi  /  sumum  on  cystum,  sumum  on  crceftum,  Gifts  106, 
kystum  god  (Edward),  Chr.  V,  23,  he  sippan  sceal  /  godra  gumcysta  geasne 
hweorfan,  Jul.  381,  pcet  we  gumcystum  georne  hyran,  And.  1606,  while  of 
Cain  it  is  said,  se  cystleasa  cwalmes  wyrhta,  Gen.  1004.  The  plural  oipeaw, 
m.,  though  generally  modified,  is  at  times  used  in  the  sense  of  virtues. 
We  cite,  cristenum  peawum,  El.  1210,  pa  pe  meotude  wel  /  gehyrdun  under 
heofonum  halgum  fieowum,  /  dcedum  domlicum,  Ph.  444,  hyran  holdlice 
minum  hodende  /  peawum  and  gepyncdum,  Gu.  577,  peowiafi  in  peawum, 
473,  sigefaston  /  modum  gleawe  in  monpeawum,  Az.  190. 

388.  The  chief  Christian  virtue  is  love.  The  New  Testament  distin- 
guishes religious  from  profane  love  by  using  ayairr),  ayawav  in  connection 
with  the  former  and  <pi\eiv  with  the  latter.  The  Vulgate  employs  amor 
and  amare  to  denote  sexual  and  other  secular  love,  while  caritas  and 

1  For  this  chapter  compare  Raumer,  p.  397  ff.,  Kahle,  I,  411  ff.,  II,  108  ff. 

2  Compare  note  on  p.  146  of  Cook's  Christ.  Ps.  LXXXIII,  7,  on  which  the  phrase  in 
Christ  seems  to  have  been  modelled,  has  of  magene  on  magen  (de  virtute  in  virtutem),  in  the 
sense  of  strength,  victory.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  ON.  kraptr,  really  power,  might, 
renders  L.  virtus  in  the  religious  sense  of  virtue,  while  the  Latin  term  itself  originally  denoted 
manly  strength. 

8  Codex  Exoniensis,  p.  359. 
4  Dichtungen,  I,  p.  219. 


116  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [116 

diligere  serve  to  express  the  religious  emotion.5  Later  this  distinction 
is  partly  obliterated,  amor  Dei  for  instance  being  frequently  found.6  In 
OHG.  and  ON.  no  such  distinctive  terms  are  used,  which  holds  good  also 
for  OE.,  where  we  have  lufu,  OHG.  luba.  The  word  is  comparatively  fre- 
quent in  the  poetry,  generally  occurring  in  the  religious  sense.  The  secular 
use  is  illustrated  for  instance  in  lufum  and  lissum,  Gen.  2737,  lufu  langsumu, 
1906,  idese  lufan,  Instructions  36,  wifes  lufan,  38;  wiflufan,  Jul.  296,  sibb- 
lufan,  Gen.  2514,  freondlufu,  1834.  The  examples  dealing  with  religious 
love  have  been  selected  with  a  view  of  showing  particular  qualities  or 
relations.  (Establish)  mid  lufan  sibbe,  /  leohte  geleafan,  Jul.  652,  pat  seo 
lufu  cyped,  /  ponne  heo  in  monnes  mode  getimbrefi  /  gastcunde  gife,  Gu. 
741,  (Philip  and  James  died)  for  meotudes  lufan,  Men.  82,  lufan  dryhtnes, 
Judg.  49,  also  Seaf.  121,  El.  491,  similarly  947,  1205;  colap  Cristes  lufu, 
Gu.  9,  for  Cristes  lufan  clane  geheolde  (her  maidenhood),  Jul.  31,  seo  hluttre 
lufu  I  godes  and  manna,  Exhortation  8-9,  heefde  hluttre  lufan,  /  ece  upgemynd 
engla  blisse,  And.  1063,  sod  luju,  Jul.  669,  pat  he  sodlice  sybbe  healde,  / 
gastlice  lufe,  Sermon  Ps.  28,  39;  for  gastlufan,  Az.  172,  mid  gastlufan,  188, 
ac  hie  of  siblufan  /  godes  ahwurfon,  Gen.  24,  mid  siblufan  sunu  waldendes  / 
freonoman  cende,  Cr.  635,  (those  that  know)  haligne  heortlufan  (in  observing 
Sunday),  Dox.  29,  faste  fyrfiluf an,  And.  83,  tome  bitolden  wees  seo  treow- 
lufu  I  hat  at  heortan,  Cr.  538,  byrnende  lufu,  Gen.  191,  fyrhat  lufu,  /  weal- 
lende  gewitt,  El.  936,  brondhat  lufu,  Gu.  937,  etc.  The  verb  lufian  is  very 
frequent.  We  note,  lufige  mid  lacum  pone  pe  leoht  gescop,  Jul.  Ill,  gif  pu 
sodne  god  /  lufast,  48,  hate  at  heortan  hige  weallende  /  dages  and  nihtes 
dryhten  lufia'd,  Ph.  478,  lufudun  leofwendum  lifes  agend,  Cr.  471,  ic  lufie  pe 
(Dilexi),  Ps.  CXIV,  1,  ic  minne  drihten  deorne  lufige  (ego  vero  delectabor  in 
Domino),  CHI,  32,  pine  halu  holde  lufigean  (diligunc  salutare  tuum), 
LXIX,  5. 

389.  Another  Christian  virtue  is  fear  of  God,  the  reverential  awe  due 
the  supreme  power.  In  the  Old  Testament  the  idea  of  fear  is  prominent, 
but  though  in  the  New  Testament  it  is  modified  to  reverential  awe,  Latin 
still  retains  timor,  timere?  In  OE.  poetry  the  idea  is  variously  expressed. 
We  note,  mid  cwide  sinum  /  gretan  godfyrhtne  (Matthew),  And.  1022, 
godfyrhte  guman  Josua  and  Tobias,  1516,  patte  godferhte  gylt  geframma'd, 
Ps.  L.  14.  Ege,  m.,  and  egesa  are  more  commonly  used.  Thus,  hafa 
metodes  ege  on  gemang  symle,  /  pat  is  witodlice  wisdomes  ord,  Exhortation 
17,  se  pe  him  ege  drihtnes  on  ferhdcleofan  faste  gestanded  (qui  timet  Domi- 
num),  Ps.  CXI,  \,pa  on  ege pinum  ealle  healde  (in  timore  tuo),  CXVIII,  38, 
hire  was  godes  egsa  /  mara  in  gemyndum,  Jul.  35-6,  him  gasta  weardes  / 


8  Raumer,  pp.  398-9. 
•  Kahle,  I,  p.  412. 
1 1bid.,  p.  413. 


117]  CHRISTIAN  VIRTUES,  QUALITIES,  AND  GOOD  WORKS  117 

egesa  on  breostum  wunode,  Gen.  2865-6,  flyhd  yfla  gehwylc  /  grimme  gieltas 
for  godes  egsan,  Ph.  461,  in  a  more  general  sense,  ealle  eordbuend  egsan 
habbad  (et  timebunt  gentes),  Ps.  CI,  13,  in  a  religious  sense,  pam  pe  egsan 
his  elne  healdad  (timentes  eum),  LXXXIV,  8.  Ondrcedan  is  also  used  a, 
number  of  times,  so  in  gif  he  him  god  ne  ondrcet,  Exhortation  38,  pe  him  his 
dryhten  ne  ondrcedep,  Seaf.  106,  pa  pe  ondrcedad  him  (timentes  eum),  Ps.  CII, 
16,  Eadige  syndon  ealle,  pe  him  ecne  god  drihten  ondrceda'd  (beati  omnes,  qui 
timent  Dominum),  CXXVII,  1,  ne  him  godes  fyrhtu  georne  ondrcedad  (non 
timuerunt  Deum),  LIV,  20,  where  we  have  in  addition  fyrhtu. 

390.  As  the  remedy  against  superbia  and  as  one  of  the  most  important 
Christian  virtues  appears  humility,  the  L.  humilitas.  The  idea  of  humility 
was  foreign  to  the  Germanic  heathen  mind,  so  that  the  Christian  termin- 
ology had  to  be  created.8  In  Gothic  hauneins,  really  lowering,  then  lowliness 
of  mind,  came  to  be  used,  in  ON.  litell&e  and  the  adjective  litelldtr.  In 
OHG.  the  terms  are  odmuoti,  deomuiti,  etc.,  which,  as  will  be  seen,  are 
closely  related  to  those  used  in  OE.  Here  we  have  the  adjective  eadmod, 
as,  Eom  ic  eadmod  his  ombiehthera,  / peow  gepyldig,  Gu.  571,  Eadig  bid 
se  pe  eapmod  leofad,  Seaf.  107,  he  (Augustine)  on  Brytene  her  /  eadmode  him 
eorlas  funde  /  to  godes  wlllan,  Men.  99,  her  on  eorpan  eadmod  leofad,  Moods 
68,  gif  pu  eadmodne  eor I  gemete,  78.  Ea dmod  is  also  used,  as, panne  beo  pu 
eadmod,  Exhortation  3,  pu  eadmodra  ealra  locast  (humilia  respicit),  Ps. 
CXXXVII,  6,  the  adverb  eadmodlice  occurring  in  eadmodlice  ealluncga 
biddan  /  heofena  drihten,  Exhortation  48.  Eadmede  and  eadmede  are  also 
encountered,  of  which  we  note  only,  dreama  rcedend  /  eallum  eadmedum9 
oprum  gesceaftum  /  duguda  gehwylcre,  Panther  56,  ic  eom  eadmede  (ego 
humiliatus  sum),  Ps.  CXV,  1.  The  verb  geeadmedan  is  rare,  used  in 
geeadmeded  ingepancum,  Ps.  L.  128,  and  ic  geeadmeded  eom  (humiliatus 
sum),  CXLI,  6.  The  noun  employed  is  eadmedu,  eadmedu,  pi.  n.,  purh 
eadmedu,  Gu.  74,  oft  his  word  gode  /  purh  eadmedu  up  onsende,  748,  He  wees 
on  elne  and  on  eadmedum,  299,  (Cyriacus  prays)  eallum  eafimedum,  El.  1100, 
min  eadmedu  (humilitatem  meam),  Ps.  CXVIII,  153,  ic  mid  eadmedum  eall 
gepafige  (humiliter),  CXXX,  3,  pa  eadmedu  ceghweer  begangad  on  eordwege, 
up  on  heofenum  (et  humilia  respicit  in  celo  et  in  terra),  CXII,  5.  Eadmetto. 
pi.  n.,  is  used,  (wyrce  him)  his  modes  hus,pcer  he  mcege  findan  /  eadmetta  stan 
ungemetfeestne,  Met.  VII,  33,  while  the  reference  is  to  the  Deity  mforpcem 
on  peer  e  dene  drihten  self  a  /  para  eadmetta  earfcest  wunigad,  38. 

391.  The  Latin  misericordla  is  often  expressed  by  milds,  milts,  f.,  a 
term  which  is  generally  applied  to  the  Deity.  As  supposedly  pertaining 
to  man  we  encounter  it  in  on  merefarode  miltse  gecydan,  And.  289,  while 
No  he  hine  wid  monna  miltse  gedcelde,  /  ac  gesynta  bced  sawla  gehwylcre 

8  Compare  Kahle,  I,  pp.  413-14. 

9  The  unchanged  reading  of  the  MS 


118  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [118 

occurs  Gu.  302.  An  adjective  often  found  is  milde,  really  liberal,  fre- 
quently applied  to  God.  It  is  also  used  of  man,  as,  sumum  he  syled  monna 
milde  heortan,  Gifts  108,  kyningc,  kystum  god,  clane  and  milde,  Chr.  V,  23, 
probably  in  the  religious  sense,  since  it  refers  to  Eadweard,  (who)  sende 
sopfceste  sawle  to  Criste,  2.  The  judge  tells  the  blessed,  Ge  pas  earnedon, 
pa  ge  earme  men  /  woruldpearfende  willum  onfengun  /  on  mildum  sefan, 
Cr.  1350-2.  In  Az.  149  the  three  youths  are  called  milde  masseras.  Of 
Beowulf  it  is  claimed,  though  probably  in  a  profane  sense,  that  he  was 
wyruldcyninga,  /  manna  mildust,  3182,  and  Moses  is  called  manna  mildost 
Ex.  549.  Mildheort  is  hardly  ever  used  of  man,  though  we  find  it  in  pat  man 
si  mildheort  mode  sotffast  (misericordiam  et  veritatem),  Ps.  LXXXIII,  12. 
Manpware,  L.  mansuetus,  is  rarely  applied  to  man.  We  note,  pam  man- 
pwcerum  sylefi  mare  halu  (exaltabit  mansuetos  in  salutem),  Ps.  CXLIX,  4, 
in  the  same  sense,  milde  mode  and  manpware  {mansuetos) ,  CXLVI,  6, 
while  it  is  said  of  Beowulf,  manna  mildust  and  mon  [pw]  arust,  3182. 

392.  The  idea  expressed  by  L.  patientia  would  have  been  repugnant 
to  the  Germanic  heathen  mind.  Only  gradually  could  such  a  virtue  take 
hold  among  a  fierce  and  vindictive  people.  OE.  uses  gepyld,  f.,  in  order 
to  render  patientia.  Thus  we  find  the  admonition,  Dys  dogor  pu  gepyld 
hafa  I  weana  gehwylces,  Beow.  1395,  further,  (Forgif  pu  me)  gepyld  and 
gemynd  pinga  gehwylces,  /  para  pu  me,  sodfast  cyning,  sendan  wille  /  to 
cunnunge,  Prayer  IV,  22,  Sum  gewealdenmod  /  hafad  in  gepylde,  pat  he 
ponne  sceal,  Gifts  71,  Sum  gepyld  hafafi,  /  fastgongel  ferd,  79,  he  minre 
gepylde  pingum  wealded  (quoniam  ab  ipso  patientia  mea),  Ps.  LXI,  5,  he 
gepyldum  bad  (the  saint),  Gu.  886.  The  adjective  gepyldig  is  even  rarer 
than  the  noun.  We  note,  peowfast  and  gepyldig  (Abraham),  Gen.  2662, 
Eom  ic  eadmod  his  ombiehthera,  /  peow  gepyldig,  Gu.  572.  Modgepyldig 
is  found  in  Da  wees  gemyndig  modgepyldig  /  beorn,  And.  981. 

393.  Abstinentia  is  once  rendered  by  jorhafdnes,  namely  pa  man 
mag  .  .  .  mid)  forhafdnessum  heonon  adrifan  (gluttony,  etc.),  Exhorta- 
tion 46. 

II.     Qualities 

394.  Here  a  number  of  terms  may  conveniently  be  treated,  such  as 
certain  virtues,  etc.,  qualities  of  the  pious  and  faithful,  which  are  ascribed 
not  so  much  to  any  particular  persons  as  representing  a  class,  but  rather 
to  them  as  the  adherents  of  God  and  Christ  and  as  members  of  the  heavenly 
kingdom.  The  apostles,  patriarchs,  saints,  and  the  blessed  in  Heaven  are 
all  represented,  and  need  not  be  treated  separately,  since  all  come  under 
the  heading  of  the  faithful,  and  similar  qualities  are  ascribed  to  them. 

395.  Godsad,  n.,  really  God's  seed,  is  encountered  in  the  sense  of  piety, 
gode  in  godsade  (three  youths  in  the  fiery  furnace),  Dan.  90.    Folc  godes, 


119]  CHRISTIAN  VIRTUES,  QUALITIES  AND  GOOD  WORKS  119 

Cr.  764,  Cristes  folces,  El.  499.    The  Christians  conceived  as  the  flock  of 
Christ  we  find  in  pin  eowde,  Cr.  257. 

396.  Not  seldom  the  faithful  are  called  the  chosen  ones,  Criste  gecorene, 
Jul.  605,  cempan  gecorene,  Criste  leofe,  Gu.  769,  bcerndon  gecorene,  /  gcBston 
godes  cempan,  Jul.  16-17,  geestas  gecorene,  Ph.  593,  pa  gecorenan,  Cr.  1635, 
his  pa  gecorenan,  Dox.  42,  etc. 

397.  Closely  connected  with  the  idea  just  mentioned  is  that  of  purity. 
Sometimes  terms  for  both  appear  in  the  same  sentence.  We  note,  clcene 
and  gecorene  Cristes  pegnas,  L.  Prayer  III,  53,  clcene  and  gecorene  (Juliana), 
Jul.  613,  sawla  soSfeeste  song  ahebbat),  /  clcene  and  gecorene  (the  blessed), 
Ph.  541,  pine  pa  gecorenan  wesan  clcene  and  alysde  {liber entur  dilecti  tui), 
Ps.  CVII,  5. 

398.  Cleanliness  is  often  ascribed  to  the  faithful,  pa  clcenan  folc  (at 
Judgment),  Cr.  1223,  hu  pu  pec  gepyde  /  .  .  .  on  clcenra  gemong,  Jul.  420, 
hiva  in  clcennisse  /  lif  alifde,  Judg.  62-3,  clcenum  heortum,  33,  pa  fie  heortan 
gehygd  healdad  clcene  {qui  ambulant  in  innocentia) ,  Ps.  LXXXIII,  13,  peer 
his  sawl  wear's  /  clcene  and  gecostad,  Gu.  506-7.  We  have  not  seldom  such 
terms  as  synna  lease  (Juliana),  Jul.  614,  leahtra  leasne  (Guthlac),  Gu.  920, 
wer  womma  leas  (Martinus),  Men.  209,  leahtra  clcene  (the  blessed  at  the 
Judgment),  Ph.  518,  etc. 

399.  Halig  is  very  frequently  employed.  We  note  here  only,  pone  hal- 
gan  heap  (apostles  in  Heaven),  Ap.  90,  gcesta  halig,  Gu.  1033,  gcesthaligne 
in  godes  temple,  1122,  both  passages  referring  to  Guthlac,  gcesthalge  guman, 
Panther  21,  gcesthaligra,  Gu.  845. 

400.  Sodjast,  the  L.  rectus  or  Justus,  occurs  often.  Sangere  he  (David) 
wees  sodfeestest,  Ps.  L.  6,  sodfeeste  men,  Panther  66,  Sat.  307,  Him  pa  sofi- 
fcestan  on  pa  swidran  hond  /  mid  rodera  weard  reste  gestigad,  Sat.  611,  eallra 
sofifcestra,  Met.  XX,  272,  sodfeestra  sib,  Dox.  4,  sodfeestra  /  .  .  .  mod, 
Jul.  325-6,  soSfcestra  sawle,  Gu.  539,  similarly  762;  peer  sodf centra  sawla 
motan  /  .  .  .  lifes  brucan,  And.  228.  We  have  also  healdan  heora  sofi- 
feestnysse  symble  mid  daedum  (faciunt  justitiam  in  omni  tempore),  Ps.  CV,  3. 

401.  We  have  also  such  terms  as  wcerfcest,  applied  to  Lot  Gen.  2596, 
halig  peer  inne  /  wcerfcest  wunade  (Juliana),  Jul.  238,  weerfeestne  haeled 
(Andrew),  And.  1273,  domfcest,  for  instance,  domfeestra  dream,  Gu.  1056, 
drfcest,  as,  Sum  bi3  arfcest,  Gifts  67,  arfeestnes  twice  in  the  sense  of  piety 
(pietas,  110,  135),  Doom  219,  268,  eefcest,  thus,  ehtee)  (devil)  cefestra,  Ser- 
mon Ps.  28,  35,  pcet  we  eefecstra  /  deede  demen,  Gu.  497,  etc. 

402.  Mjremmende  occurs  Jul.  648,  ryhtfremmende  Ph.  632,  the  gen.  pi. 
Jul.  8,  while  the  keeping  of  the  commandments  is  often  mentioned,  of  which 


120  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [120 

we  note  only  a  few  expressions.  The  general  statement  gif  ge  gehealdad 
halige  lare  is  found  Ex.  560,  etc.,  l&stan,  to  obey,  to  do,  is  used  frequently, 
as  in  hu  ic  Iceste  well,  Ps.  CXVIII,  12,  etc.,  Swa  pu  Icestan  scealt,  Gen.  509, 
etc.,  IcBston  larcwide,  And.  674,  pat  hie  his  lare  Iceston  geome,  1653,  pcet  ce 
godes  ealle  gelceste,  Dan.  219,  etc.  ^Efnan  in  practically  the  same  sense  as 
Icestan  is  found  a  number  of  times,  thus,  poet  heo  his  wisfcest  word  wynnum 
ejnan  (ad  faciendum  ea),  Ps.  CII,  17,  sode  domas  sylfe  efnan  (custodiunt 
judicium),  CV,  3. 

III.     Good  Works 

403.  During  the  Middle  Ages  special  emphasis  was  placed  upon  good 
works,  and  this  doctrine  of  the  Church  has  left  a  deep  impression  in  OE. 
poetry.  Time  and  again  we  are  met  with  the  claim  that  good  works  will 
be  rewarded  by  eternal  salvation.10  Exhortation  12-15  we  have  men- 
tioned, eac  opera  fela  /  godra  weorca  glengad  and  bringad  /  pa  sofifcestan 
sauwle  to  reste  /  on  pa  uplican  eadignesse,  though  here  prayer,  love,  and 
hope  are  also  enumerated  in  connection  with  almsgiving.  In  order  to 
express  the  specific  religious  meaning,  weorc,  like  Greek  epya  and  Latin 
opera,  has  to  be  modified.  This  was  done  in  the  example  just  quoted  by 
god,  similarly  in  pcet  we  to  pam  hyhstan  hrofe  gestigan  /  halgum  weorcum, 
Cr.  750.  Deed  is  also  used.  Thus,  Crist  ealle  wat  /  gode  dcede,  Judg.  68, 
geleana'd  lifes  waldend  /  .  .  .  /  godum  dcedum,  87,  further,  hu  hi  fore  god- 
dcedum  glade  blissiad,  Cr.  1287,  pcet  we  motun  her  mereri  /  goddcedum 
begietan  gaudia  in  cela,  Ph.  669,  and  pcet  he  godra  mcest  /  dccda  gefremme, 
462-3. 

404.  Among  good  works  a  very  prominent  place  was  accorded  the 
giving  of  alms.  The  OE.  word  is  celmysse,  celmesse,  f.,  cognate  with  OFris. 
ielmisse,OS.  alamosna,  ON.  almusa,  OHG.  alamuosan,11  the  common  Teut. 
type  *alemosna  or  *alemosina  going  back  through  popular  L.  *alimosina 
to  L.  eleemosyna  and  Greek  e\erjfj.ocrvvr].  The  word  is  encountered  a  num- 
ber of  times  in  OE.  poetry,  one  small  piece  treating  especially  of  alms, 
bestowing  the  highest  praise  upon  this  good  work.  For  worulde  weord- 
mynda  mcest  /  and  for  ussum  dryhtne  doma  selest,  the  author  exclaims  Alms 
3-4,  and  as  to  the  results,  (Efne  siva  he  mid  wcetre  pone  weallendan  /  leg 
adwcesce,  pcet  he  leng  ne  mceg  /  blac  byrnende  burgum  sceddan,  5-7)  swa  he 
mid  celmessan  ealle  toscufefi  /  synna  wunde,  sawla  lacnad,  8-9.  Such  a  man 
is  said  to  have  rume  heortan,  2.  It  is  also  claimed,  pcet  se  hcefde  are  on  eorp- 
rice,  se  pe  celmyssan  /  dcelde  domlice  drihtnes  pances,  Charm  I,  36-7. 
ponne  he  celmessan  ear  mum  dceled,  Ph.  433,  is  mentioned  as  an  effective 
antidote  against  nipa  gehwam,  451,  and  it  is  said  of  the  monks,  sellad 

10  Compare  Judgment  and  Heaven  in  the  next  chapter,  410  and  420. 

11  Note  discussion  of  alms  in  NED.,  Pogatscher,  Lautlehre,  38,  74,  and  for  further  refer- 
ences see  his  index,  p.  210. 


121]  CHRISTIAN  VIRTUES,  QUALITIES,  AND  GOOD  WORKS  121 

almessan,  Gu.  48.  Exhortation  9  enumerates  seo  almessylen  among  the 
good  works  that  bring  the  soul  to  a  blessed  rest,  while  lines  32-3  exhort, 
syle  celmessan  oft  and  gelome  /  digolice,  and  similarly  Dan.  587,  syle  almys- 
san,  wes  eartnra  hleo.  While  Gifts  67  simply  states,  Sum  bid  arfast  and 
almesgeorn,  Exhortation  2-3  is  more  insistent,  gif  pu  wille  pat  blowende 
rice  gestigan,  /panne  be  pu  eadmod  and  celmesgeom. 

• 

405.  Among  other  good  works  fasting  held  a  prominent  place  in  the 
Mediaeval  Church.  The  OE.  word  is  fasten,  n.,  the  L.  jejunium.  In  the 
poetry  it  is  encountered  only  a  few  times,  namely,  fasten  lufiad,  Gu.  780, 
said  of  monks  or  hermits,  and  pa  (namely  gluttony,  etc.)  man  mag  mid 
fastenum  J  and  forhafdnessum  heonon  adrifan,  Exhortation  45.  The  other 
examples  are  found  in  the  Psalms,  ponne  tc  minum  feore  fasten  gesette  (et 
operui  in  jejuni o  animam  meam),  LXVIII,  10,  and  Me  synt  cneowu  swylce 
cwicu  unhale  for  fastenum  {Genua  mea  informata  sunt  a  jejunio),  CVIII, 
24.  The  verb  fastan12  is  also  rare.  It  is  said  of  Christ,  he  faste  feowertig 
daga,  Sat.  667,  and  the  body  is  addressed,  Fastest  du  onfoldan  and  gefyldest 
me  I  godes  lichoman,  gastes  drynces,  Soul.  145.  In  the  sense  of  jejuniis 
expiaren  we  encounter  it  in  ponne  hie  ivoldon  sylfe  /  fyrene  fastan,  Dan. 
592. 

406.  We  may  mention  also  swencad  hi  sylfe  (mortify  themselves),  Gu. 
778,  referring  to  monks,  while  in  reference  to  withdrawing  from  one's  kin 
we  have  the  threatening  attitude  of  the  devils  toward  St.  Guthlac,  (gif  he 
eft  ne  wolde)  his  sibbe  ryht  /  mid  moncynne  mar  an  crafte  /  willum  bewitigan, 
Gu.  168-70. 

u  Goth,  fastan,  OFris.  festia,  OHG.  fasten,  ON.  fasta. 
13  Sprachschatz.    See  also  Bibl.  II,  p.  507. 


122 


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CHAPTER  XII 
THE  FUTURE  LIFE 

407.  Germanic  heathenism  was  not  without  definite  notions  about  a 
future  life,  developed  especially  among  the  Scandinavians.1  However,  it 
cannot  be  our  object  to  enter  into  the  discussion  of  this  subject  here. 
Suffice  it  to  say  that  we  know  scarcely  anything  as  to  the  views  held  by 
the  heathen  Anglo-Saxons,  while  the  evidence  at  hand  seems  to  indicate 
that  they  had  very  vague  ideas  about  the  matter.2 

I.     Judgment  Day  and  Purgatory 

408.  We  may  fittingly  begin  our  discussion  of  the  future  life  with  the 
Day  of  Judgment  or  the  Day  of  Doom.  The  term  for  judgment  is  dom, 
m.,  from  OTeut.  *domoz,  appearing  in  OFris.  and  OS.  as  dom,  OHG.  tuom, 
ON.  ddmr,  Goth,  doms.3  The  OE.  word  is  found  in  fionne  dryhten  sylf  dom 
gesecefi,   El.    1279,  Ic  ondrcede  me  eac  dom  pone  miclan  (judiciique  diem 

.  magnum,  8),  Doom  15,  and  in  many  other  passages.  The  particulars 
of  the  Last  Judgment  need  not  be  entered  into  here,  since  that  has  been 
done  sufficiently  elsewhere4  and  is  only  remotely  connected  with  our  sub- 
ject. A  few  of  the  more  important  phases,  however,  will  appear  in  our 
discussion.  Ic  pone  cerest  ealra  getreowc,  /  flcssces  on  foldan  on  pa  forhtan 
tid,  Creed  55-6  runs,  rendering  the  L.  Carnis  resurrectionem.  By  pa  forhtan 
tid  the  Day  of  Doom  is  meant,  to  which  two  entire  poems  are  devoted, 
and  which  furnishes  a  fruitful  theme  in  several  other  pieces,  notably  so  in 
Phenix  and  Christ.  Though  Germanic  mythology  knows  of  the  end  of 
the  world,  the  Ragnarqk,  etc.,  a  day  of  judgment  in  the  Christian  sense 
was  unknown,5  and  in  OE.  as  well  as  in  the  other  Germanic  dialects,  the 

»  Grimm,  DM.,  I,  259  ff.,  II,  682  ff.,  Golther,  Handbuch,  289  f.  313  ff.,  471  ff.,  Kahle, 
I,  387,  421  ff. 

2Lingard,  History  and  Antiquities,  p.  42:  "Of  a  future  life  their  notions  were  faint  and 
wavering;  and  if  the  soul  were  fated  to  survive  the  body,  to  quaff  ale  out  of  the  skulls  of 
their  enemies  was  to  be  the  great  reward  of  the  virtuous:  to  lead  a  life  of  hunger  and  inactivity, 
the  endless  punishment  of  the  wicked";  Hunt,  Church  History,  p.  13:  "The  mysteries  of 
life  and  death  exercised  the  mind  of  the  English,  and  their  ideas  of  a  future  life  appear  to 
have  been  confused  and  to  some  extent  gloomy." 

8  For  a  discussion  on  the  Judgment  Day  in  OHG.  compare  Raumer,  pp.  406-9,  in  ON. 
Kahle,  I,  422-3,  II,  153. 

4  See  especially  W.  Deering,  The  Anglo-Saxon  Poets  on  the  Judgment  Day,  also  G.  Grau, 
Quellen  und  V erwandschaften  der  alter  en  germanischen  Darstelhmgen  des  jiingsten  Gerichts, 
and  Klacber,  Anglia,  XXXV,  pp.  263-5. 

6  Note  Deering's  rather  daring  statement,  p.  83:  "In  the  darkest  days  of  their  heathen- 
dom, the  Germanic  tribes  believed  in  a  destruction  of  the  world,  in  a  Judgment  after  death, 
in  a  Hell,  in  a  Heaven." 


123]  THE  FUTURE  LIFE  123 

term  for  it  had  to  be  especially  created.  In  OE.  it  is  domdag,  the  L.  dies 
judicii,  Gr.  ruxkpa  icpLaeoos,  while  OHG.  and  ON.  translate  the  Latin  expres- 
sions in  various  ways,  though  like  OE.,  OHG.  has  also  tuomtag.  As  occur- 
rences of  the  term  we  may  cite,  ar  he  domdages  dynn  gehyre,  Sal.  272,  on 
pam  domdcBge,  Soul  96,  worpad  hine  deofol  /  on  domdage,  Sal.  26,  on  dom- 
dcege,  Sat.  600,  Rood  B,  105,  at  domdage,  Cr.  1619,  1637.  Domes  dag, 
OHG.  tuomes  tag,  also  occurs,  as  for  instance,  ofi  domes  dceg,  Beow.  3069, 
ar  domes  dcege,  Met.  XXIX,  41,  and  domes  dages  dyn,  Sal.  324. 

409.  Kennings  for  the  Day  of  Judgment  are  not  infrequently  used. 
It  is  the  terrible,  great,  greatest,  famous  day,  the  grim,  hard  time,  etc. 
And  on  that  terrible  day,  ponne  eall  monna  cynn  /  se  ancenneda  ealle 
gesamnad,  Soul  I,  50-1,  when  according  to  L.  Prayer  III,  95,  heofonwaru 
and  eorfiwaru,  helwaru  pridde  are  present.  Gemot,  the  assembly,  meeting, 
is  therefore  mentioned,  so  Judg.  36,  poet  hip  pearlic  gemot,  Soul  153  telling 
of  gemotstede  manna  and  engla.  We  hear  also  of  medel,  the  assembly  or 
judicial  meeting,  cet  medle,  And.  1436,  cet  pam  maple,  Ph.  538,  on  pam 
medelstede,  Ex.  542.  Once  we  have  ping,  Cr.  927,  and  once  also  seonop, 
Ph.  493. 

410.  Christ  is  generally  conceived  of  as  the  judge,  though  judgment  is 
also  ascribed  to  God,  e.g.,  Ex.  541-2,  and  to  the  Trinity,  to  the  latter  for 
instance  Jul.  723-9.  As  to  Christ,  we  have  among  other  statements,  Ac 
Mva  demefi  fionne  dryhtne  Criste  /  on  domes  dcege,  donne  he  demefi  eallum 
gesceaftum?  Sal.  334-5,  ponne  Crist  sited  on  his  cynestole,  /  on  heahsetle 
heofonmagna  god,  /fader  almihtig:  folca  gehwylcum  /  scyppend  scinende 
scrifed  bi  gewyrhtum,  Cr.  1217-20,  etc.,  etc.  Christ  is  on  his  judgment  seat, 
domsetle  drihtnes  (tribunal,  62),  Doom  123,  on  heahsetle  (sublimis  in  alto,  59), 
118.  One  law  or  standard  of  judgment  obtains  for  all,  par  hafd  anelage  earm 
and  se  welega  (et  miser  et  dives  simili  ditione  timebunt,  81),  Doom  163.  We 
are  told,  Crist  ealle  wat  /  gode  dade,  Judg.  67-8,  and  the  decision  is  rendered 
according  to  the  works  of  men,  scrifed  bi  gewyrhtum,  Jul.  728,  after  dadum 
deman  wille,  707,  pat  gehivylc  under fo  be  his  dadum  at  drihtne  sylfum  (Judi- 
cium ut  capiat  gestorum  quisque  suorum,  61),  Doom  121,  sceal  bearna  gehwylc 
mid  lice  and  mid  sawle  leanes  fricgan  /  ealles  pas  pe  we  on  eorpan  ar  geworh- 
tan  I  godes  oppe  yfles,  Judg.  40-43,  etc.,  etc.  The  people  are  divided  into 
two  parts,  the  chosen  and  the  cursed,  each  to  receive  its  reward,  par  man 
us  tyhhad  on  dag  twegen  ear  das,  /  drihtenes  are  odfie  deofles  peowet,  L.  Prayer 
III,  97-8,  etc. 

411.  The  subject  of  purgatory  or  the  purgatorial  fire,  the  doctrine  of 
which  was  first  expressly  formulated  by  Gregory  the  Great,6  may  receive 

•  Dial.  IV,  39:  "de  quibusdam  levibus  culpis  esse  ante  judicium  purgatorius  ignis  credendum 
est."    Enc.  Brit. 


124 


INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY 


[124 


a  brief  treatment  here.7  Though  in  OE.  poetry  the  purgatorial  fire  is 
several  times  described  or  alluded  to,  it  differs  in  important  respects  from 
the  doctrine  that  came  to  be  accepted  by  the  Church  of  Rome.8  Excepting 
Elene,  the  statements  are  not  as  clear  and  explicit  as  we  might  wish  them 
to  be.  In  Judgment  the  earth  is  consumed  by  fire,  though  the  idea  as  a 
purgatorial  element  in  regard  to  man  does  not  appear.  More  definite  are 
the  statements  in  Phenix.  Having  spoken  of  the  fire  before,  the  author 
continues,  ponne  peos  woruld  /  scyldwyrcende  in  seome  byrne'd  /  ade  oneeled, 
501  ff.,  Fyr  bid  on  tyhte,  /  eeled  uncyste,  525-6,  Bec-fl  ponne  amerede  monna 
gcestas,  I  beorhte  abywde  purh  bryne  fyres,  544-5.  Especially  clear  and 
detailed  are  the  statements  in  Elene.  The  poet  in  1278  speaks  of  tionleg 
nimed,  and  with  1285  the  detailed  description  begins.  On  the  Day  of 
Judgment  the  people  are  divided  into  three  groups.  The  sofifeesle  are 
uppermost  in  the  fire  and  least  affected,  1288-94,  the  synfulle  .  .  .  / 
mane  gemengde  are  in  the  middle,  in  hatne  wylm,  1294  ff.,  while  the  third 
part,  awyrgede  womsceadan  in  pees  wylmes  grund,  /  lease  leodhatan  lige 
befcBsted,  1298-9,  are  in  the  grip  of  the  fire,  from  whence  they  are  thrown 
in  kelle  grund,  1304.  The  other  two  divisions  are  purged,  hie  asodene  beod,  / 
asundrodfram  synnum  swa  smeete  gold,  etc.,  1207-8,  swa  bi~d  para  manna  celc  / 
ascyred  and  asceaden  scylda  gehwylcre,  /  deopra  firena  purh  pees  domes  fyr, 
1311-13.  Though  this  description  leaves  nothing  to  be  desired  as  regards 
clearness  of  statement  and  as  to  the  purging  process,  no  special  term  for 
purgatory  has  as  yet  been  adopted.    Later  the  Latin  word  is  taken  over. 


II.     Heaven 

412.  After  the  Day  of  Judgment  the  righteous  enter  Heaven,  there  to 
dwell  forever  with  God  and  the  angels  in  never-ending  bliss.  The  idea  of 
a  future  happy  state  was  of  course  not  foreign  to  the  Germanic  heathen 
mind,  as  the  mythology  sufficiently  shows,9  but  with  the  advent  of  Chris- 
tianity this  future  blissful  state  received  a  more  definite  and  significant 
importance. 

413.  The  OE.  term  for  Heaven  is  heofon,  heofun,  m.,  cognate  with  OS. 
heban.10    The  word  is  very  frequent  in  the  poetry,  and  there  seems  to  be  a 

7  Compare  Becker,  Mediaeval  Visions,  pp.  69-73,  the  Anglo-Saxon  Purgatory. 

8  Purgatory  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  poets  commences  and  ends  on  the  Judgment  Day. 
For  the  sources  see  Becker,  Mediaeval  Visions,  pp.  72-3,  Cook,  Anglia,  XV,  pp.  9-20,  his  edi- 
tion of  Christ,  p.  LXIX  f.,  Grau,  Quellen  und  Verwandschaften,  p.  15  ff.,  etc. 

9  Grimm,  D.M.,  II,  p.  682  ff.    Golther,  Handbuch,  289  f.,  313  ff. 

10  NED.:  "Ulterior  etymology  unknown";  as  to  the  relation  between  the  words  in  the 
Teutonic  dialects,  it  says:  "The  LG.  *hebana-,  *hebuna-,  was  app.  an  entirely  different  word 
from  Goth,  himins,  ON.  himinn,  .  .  OHG.  himil  .  .  ;  at  least  no  connexion  between  them  can, 
in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge,  be  assumed. "  But  see  Kluge,  Englische  Studien,  XX, 
pp.  354-5.  A  bibliography  will  be  found  in  Falk-Torp,  under  himmel.  For  Heaven  in  OHG. 
compare  Raumer,  p.  409  ff.,  in  ON.  Kahle,  I,  423-4,  II,  154-5. 


125]  THE  FUTURE  LIFE  125 

preference  for  the  plural  forms,  probably  not  uninfluenced  by  the  Latin 
use.  We  note  the  rendering  in  L.  Prayer,  Halig  fader,  pu  pe  on  heofonum 
eardast,  I,  I,  pu  de  on  heofonum  eart  {qui  es  in  cells),  II,  2,  Dm  eart  on  heofo- 
num hiht  and  fr  of  or  {Qui  es  in  celis),  III,  11.  Otherwise  the  plural  is  also 
extremely  common,  e.g.,  feeder  on  heofonum,  par  us  eal  seo  fcestnung  stonded, 
Wand.  115,  pa  hyhstan  on  heofonum  eac  /  Cristes  pegnas,  Cr.  282,  heofonas 
secan,  And.  977,  Gufilac  sette  /  hyht  in  heofonas,  Gu.  406,  etc.,  etc. 

414.  Regarding  the  situation,  condition,  and  details  concerning  Heaven 
a  great  deal  of  material  is  found  in  OE.  poetry,  but  our  discussion  will 
include  only  a  few  of  the  more  important  aspects  of  the  subject.  As  a 
convenient  summary  we  quote  from  Deering's  essay:11  "Heaven  is,  then, 
in  short  an  idealized,  yet  concrete  and  definite  kingdom  somewhere  above 
the  earth,  a  bright  and  beautiful  landscape  with  spreading,  green  fields, 
dotted  with  cities,  planted  with  waving  fruit-trees  and  fragrant  flowers: 
in  a  narrower  sense  a  city,  the  hereditary  stronghold,  as  it  were,  of  the 
Eternal  King,  the  happy  home  of  his  followers.  The  mild  and  generous 
Prince  of  Heaven  sits  upon  His  throne  in  His  hall,  is  mindful  of  the  welfare 
of  His  people  and  dispenses  to  them  the  rich  gifts  of  His  presence,  His 
grace  and  love,  while  His  devoted  followers  surround  His  throne  and  with 
becoming  reverence  express  their  gratitude  and  faithful  allegiance  in  glad 
songs  of  praise.  The  good  not  only  enjoy  the  presence  and  blessings  of 
God,  the  fellowship  of  the  angels,  the  light  and  glory  and  beauty  of  their 
heavenly  home,  but  are  also  free  from  every  torment  of  hell,  from  every 
care  and  sorrow  and  suffering  of  earthly  life.  And  these  joys  of  heaven 
are  eternal. " 

415.  Several  times  Heaven  is  called  neorxna  wang,12  a  term  generally 
applied  to  Paradise  or  the  Garden  of  Eden.  Thus  we  read,  and  in  gefor 
(namely  the  thief)  pa  cenlican  geatu  /  neorxnawonges  mid  nerigende,  Doom 
63-4,  where  the  Latin  has  portas  paradisi  apertas,  32.  Sigefcestne  ham  / 
neorxna  wang,  Men.  150-1,  also  refers  to  Heaven,  while  the  description  in 
And.  102  ff.  closely  resembles  that  of  the  Garden  of  Eden,  pe  is  neorxna 
wang,  I  blceda  beorhtost,  boldwela  fcegrost,  /  hama  hyhtlicost  haligum  mihtum  / 
torht  ontyned,  which  characterizes  it  sufficiently    when  compared  with 

11  Page  69.    For  an  extended  description  compare  p.  62  ff. 

12  The  etymology  is  doubtful.  Grein,  Sprachschatz:  "Sollten  somit  nicht  die  ags.  neris- 
can,  neirxan,  neorxati,  geradezu  identisch  sein  mit  den  nordischen  Nornen,  .  .  .  und  neorxna 
wang  nymphariim  pratum  bedeuten?"  See  O.  Ritter,  Anglia,  XXXIII,  pp.  467-70,  who  pro- 
poses *Ercan  suna.  *Ercsuna  (sons  of  the  earth).  R.  Imelmann,  Anglia,  XXXV,  p.  428, 
quotes  These  III  of  his  diss,  on  the  Menology,  Berlin,  1902:  "Das  anlautende  n  in  ae.  neorx- 
nawang,  'Paradies,'  ist  nicht  stammhaft  oder  rest  eines  selbstandigen  wortes,  sondern  er- 
klart  sich  aus  der  haufigen  stellung  von  neorxnawang  nach  einem  auslauts-»."  See  also  Krapp's 
Andreas,  p.  85,  note  to  line  102. 


126  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [126 

the  Garden  of  Eden,  Ph.  395  fL,  Cr.  1390  ff.,  Gen.  170  ff.,  210  ff.,  854, 
889,  etc. 

416.  Heaven  is  above  the  earth,  as  is  gathered  from  such  terms  and 
phrases  as  upheofen,  Sat.  167,  etc.,  pa  heahnisse  heofena  kyninges,  Prayer 
III,  35,  as  also  from  statements  such  as  up  secan  him  ece  dreamas,  /  on 
heanne  hrof  heofona  rices,  Dan.  441-2,  pcet  we  eade  magon  upcund  rice  / 
ford  gestigan,  Wond.  34-5,  etc.  It  is  often  called  a  kingdom,  for  instance, 
on  heofonrice  heahgetimbro,  Gen.  739,  similarly  El.  621,  Cr.  1246,  etc.;  da 
halgan  duru  heofona  rices,  Sal.  37 ',  feeder  rice,  Cr.  475,  1345,  Soul  140,  etc. 
Furthermore  it  is  spoken  of  as  a  city,  peodnes  burg,  Cr.  553,  to  wuldres 
byrig,  Jul.  665,  to  peer e  beorhtan  byrg,  Cr.  519,  similarly  El.  821,  etc.;  in  pa 
halgan  burg,  Gu.  784,  to  Hierusalem,  785,  godes  ealdorburg  .  .  .  /  rodera 
ceastre,  Rid.  60,  15-16.  We  find  also,  heahgetimbru,  /  seld  on  swegle,  Gu. 
556-7,  pone  sele,  Judg.  92.  Regarding  the  details  may  be  mentioned, 
heofonstolas ,  Gen.  8,  rodorstolas,  749,  etc.  The  throne  of  God  or  Christ  is 
referred  to  a  number  of  times,  hehselda  wyn,  Sat.  43,  heled  ymb  hehseld,  47, 
ymb  pcet  halge  heahseld  godes,  Ph.  619,  ymb  pcet  hehsetl,  Sat.  220,  du  on 
heahsetle  I  ecum  ricsast  (God),  Met.  IV,  2,  on  heahsetle  (Christ),  Cr.  555, 
1218,  gcesta  gifstol  (Christ),  572,  onpam  halgan  stole,  Gen.  260,  ponne  Crist 
sited  on  his  cynestole,  Cr.  1217,  while  it  is  said  that  the  rebellious  angels 
tried  prymcyning  peodenstoles  /  ricne  beryfan,  Moods  62-3. 

417.  Of  the  various  kennings13  we  note  further,  wuldres  wynland, 
Moods  65,  on  engla  eard,  74,  similarly  Cr.  646;  wuldres  eard,  1203,  upeard, 
Gu.  1051,  on  ecne  eard,  1155,  with  which  may  be  compared  awo  to  ealdre 
eardfeest  wesan,  758;  dees  heofoncundan  /  boldes,  Gu.  54-5,  beorhtne  bold- 
welan,  And.  524,  Ap.  33,  etc.,  lifwela,  49,  to  eadwelan,  Gu.  1091,  (brucan) 
eces  eadwelan,  El.  1315,  edel,  the  hereditary  home,  Gu.  38,  etc.,  beorht 
edles  wlite,  Cr.  1347,  engla  epel,  630,  etc.,  epellond,  Gu.  628,  topam  uplican  / 
edelrice,  And.  119-20,  on  ecne  geard,  Gu.  1241,  J 'rid geardum  in,  Cr.  399,  sio 
fridstow,  Met.  XXI,  16,  wynsum  stow,  18,  etc. 

418.  Heaven  is  a  home,  e.  g.,  On  heofenhame  halig  drihten  his  heahsetle 
hror  timbrade  (Dominus  in  caelo  paravit  sedem  suam),  Ps.  CII,  18,  heofon- 
hamas  healdest  (in  coelis),  CXXII,  1,  etc.;  of  the  Virgin  Mary  it  is  said  that 
she  sent/>a  beorhtan  lac  /  to  heofonhame,  Cr.  292-3.  We  note  also,  ham  in 
heofonum,  Gu.  69,  heofonlicne  ham,  Rood  B,  148,  deoran  ham,  Gu.  40,  in 
pam  ecan  ham,  Cr.  305,  inpam  cepelan  ham,  350,  pone  mceran  ham,  And.  227, 
pone  clcenan  ham  /  eadmedum  upp,  978. 

419.  The  dwelling  with  God  and  the  angels  is  called  I  if,  the  L.  vita, 
Rood  B,  126,  etc.,  while  the  rendering  of  L.  vita  aeterna  recurs  time  and 
again  in  ece  lif,  Creed  57,  Ap.  38,  73,  Gu.  33,  97,  etc.,  eces  lifes,  Cr.  1052, 

u  Compare  Bode,  Kenningar,  p.  74,  Rankin,  IX,  p.  51  ff. 


127]  THE  FUTURE  LIFE  127 

eadig  on  pam  ecan  life,  1428.  It  is  further  described,  bettre  lif,  Gu.  751, 
winsumre  lif,  Ap.  20,  pat  leohte  lif,  Ph.  661.  Heaven  was  thought  of  as 
radiant  with  light,  heofones  leoht,  Sermon  Ps.  28,  44,  dryhtnes  leoht,  Gu.  555, 
wuldres  leoht,  Ap.  61,  leoht  unhwilen,  20,  pcct  leohte  leoht,  Cr.  592. 

420.  The  blessings  of  Heaven  were  considered  the  reward  for  battles 
well  fought,  wigges  lean,  El.  824,  hafad  nu  ece  lif  /  mid  wuldorcining  wiges 
to  leane,  Ap.  73-4.  Even  a  reward  for  the  Virgin  Mary  is  not  forgotten, 
hafde  nergend  pa  /  fagere  fostorlean  famnan  for  golden  /  ece  to  ealdre,  Men. 
151-3.  Undue  emphasis  is  laid  upon  works,  and  the  theme  never  seems 
to  weary  the  poets.  Of  the  many  examples  encountered  we  note  a  few. 
Mr  eamode  eces  lifes,  Cr.  1052,  earniad  on  eordan  ecan  lifes,  /  hames  in 
heahpu,  Gu.  767-8,  ponne  du  geearnast,  pat  pe  bid  ece  lif,  /  selust  sigeleana 
seald  in  heofonum,  El.  526-7,  him  womdcede  witan  ne  pencad  /  for  earnunge 
ecan  lifes,  L.  Prayer  II,  25-6,  hcefd  nu  lif  wid  pan  /  mid  wuldot fader  weorca 
to  leane,  Men.  146-7;  sigorlean  in  swegles  wuldre,  Jud.  345,  sigorlean,  Gu. 
1344,  etc.,  to  sigorleanum,  Cr.  1590,  ponon  wuldres  leoht  /  sawle  gesohte 
sigores  to  leane,  Ap.  61-2,  weorca  wuldorlean ,  Gu.  1347,  wuldorlean  weorca, 
Cr.  1080,  Ceapa  pe  mid  ahtum  eces  leohtes,  Exhortation  34,  feorhrad  freme- 
don,  And.  1654,  etc. 

421.  The  fact  that  the  blessed  live  in  a  state  of  bliss  and  happiness  is 
often  emphasized  by  the  poets.  A  general  term  for  salvation  is  gesald,  f., 
happiness,  blessedness,  used  a  considerable  number  of  times  in  Meters, 
where  we  have  the  contrast  between  true  and  false  happiness.  We  note, 
sio  sode  gesald,  XII,  19,  soda  gesalda,  23,  ecan  good  /  soda  gesalda,  XIX, 
31-2,  and  soda  gesalda,  pat  is  self  a  god,  36.  In  contrast  to  it  we  quote, 
leasa  gesalda,  XII,  27,  woruldsalda,  II,  10,  VII,  52,  54.  Halor,  n.,  salva- 
tion, is  thrice  used  in  Juliana,  ahwyrfen  from  halor,  327,  similarly  360; 
hyge  from  halor,  440.  The  saved  are  gesalig,  blessed,  a  term  also  applied 
to  Christ,  for  instance  in  par  he  gesalig  sippan  eardad  /  ealne  widan  feorh 
wunad  butan  ende,  Cr.  438,  to  the  saved,  pat  gesalige  weorud,  1249,  gesal- 
gum,  1652,  1660,  gesalige  sawle,  Sat.  296,  gesalig  /  mines  epelrices  eadig 
neotan,  Cr.  1461,  while  Ea  la,  se  bid  gesalig  and  ofersalig  /  and  on  worulda 
woruld  wihta  gesaligost,  Doom  246-7,  renders  Felix  o  nimiuml  semperque 
in  saecula  felix,  124.  Gesaliglic  is  also  encountered,  meaht  and  gefea  / 
swide  gesaliglic  sawlum  to  gielde,  Cr.  1079.  The  noun  gesalignes  is  found 
only  once  in  poetry,  ac  par  bip  engla  dream,  /  sib  and  gesalignes  and  sawla 
rast,  Cr.  1677.  Eadig,  L.  beatus,  felix,  is  common.  We  note  only,  eadig, 
Cr.  1497,  eadige  sawla,  Sat.  653,  ponne  he  sodfastra  sawla  laded,  /  eadige 
gastas  on  uprodor,  Ex.  544,  etc.,  etc.  Welig,  rich,  is  not  so  common;  we 
note,  welig  in  heofonum,  Cr.  1496. 

422.  The  Anglo-Saxon  poets  never  tire  of  pointing  out  the  joys  and 
blessings  of  Heaven,  transferring  their  ideas  of  worldly  happiness  to  the 


128  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [128 

heavenly  abode.  To  designate  the  joy,  dream,  m.,  is  often  employed. 
This  word  had  the  'primary  meaning  of  noisy  joviality,'14  which  according 
to  Ferrell,15  Grimm  refers  to  "the  jubilum  aulae,  that  ecstatic  state  of 
halfdrunkenness  in  which  the  comrades  sat  together  in  peaceful  circle, 
told  stories  and  drank."  We  note  as  the  more  characteristic  occurrences, 
ecne  dream,  Soul  154,  dream  unhwilen,  El.  1231,  halige  dreamas,  Sat.  680, 
hluttre  dreamas  /  eadge  mid  englum,  Cr.  1246,  in  pam  uplican  engla  dreame, 
102,  engla  dreames,  1343,  in  wuldres  dream,  Gu.  1278,  etc.,  swegles  dreamas, 
And.  809,  swase  swegldreamas ,  Cr.  1349,  geestlice  goddream,  Gu.  602,  heofon- 
dreamas,  Soul  105,  on  sindreamum,  Ph.  385,  folc  geleedan  /  in  dreama  dream, 
Cr.  580,  agan  .  .  .  /  dreama  dream  mid  dryhtne  gode  /  a  to  worulde,  a 
buton  ende,  Sat.  314. 

423.  Symbel,  n.,  banquet,  reminding  one  of  the  festal  board  in  the 
meadhall,  with  its  gayety  and  conviviality,  is  also  used  a  few  t:mes  to 
express  the  heavenly  joys.  Thus,  him  is  symbel  and  dream  /  ece  unhwylen 
eadgum  to  fr  of  re,  Wonders  96,  par  is  blis  mycel,  /  dream  on  heofonum,  /  peer 
is  dry htnes  folc  /  geseted  to  symle,  peer  is  singal  blis,  Rood  B,  139-41. 

424.  Of  other  characterizations  a  considerable  number  occur,  as  for 
instance  gefea,  which  is  very  frequent.  We  note,  ecan  gefean,  Gu.  1052, 
etc.,  upne  ecne  gefean,  Sat.  199,  wynsum  gefea,  Cr.  1253,  pam  fcegrestan  / 
heofonrices  gefean,  Gu.  808-9,  etc.  Blis  is  also  extremely  common,  e.g., 
peer  is  hyht  and  blis,  Cr.  750,  sib  and  bliss,  Gu.  1055.  However,  these  and 
similar  terms,  as  also  compounds  of  hecfon,  of  which  some  have  been 
mentioned,  need  no  further  discussion. 

III.     Hell 

425.  The  Germanic  tribes  were  not  without  views  about  a  place  for 
the  departed  spirits,  in  the  North  even  the  idea  of  punishment  having 
developed.16  And  when  Christianity  made  its  advent  with  its  doctrine  of 
hell,  the  Germanic  tribes  did  not  find  it  difficult  to  assimilate  the  new 
ideas,  while  the  old  name  was  kept.  In  OE.  the  term  is  hej,{l),  f.,  OFris. 
helle,  Mile,  OS.  hellja,  hella,  OHG.  hella,  ON.  hel,  Goth.  Jialja,  all  from  the 
Teut.  stem  *halja,  literally  the  coverer  up  or  hider.  The  ON.  ideas  of  hel 
in  the  extant  writings  are  clearer  than  those  of  the  other  peoples.17  There 
we  meet  also  Hel,  daughter  of  Loki  and  a  giantess,  as  the  goddess  of  the 
infernal  regions. 


'&•* 


14  Kent,  Teutonic  Antiquities,  p.  17. 

15  Teutonic  Antiquities,  pp.  16-17.  Grimm's  words,  Andreas  und  Elene,  Cassel,  1840, 
p.  XXXVII,  however,  are:  "Nichts  ging  ihm  iiber  den  seledredm,  jubilum  aulae,  A.  1656, 
wo  im  friedlichen  kreise  gewohnt,  erzahlt  und  gezecht  wurde. " 

16  Grimm,  DM.,  I,  p.  259  ff.,  Golther,  Handbuch,  p.  471  ff. 

17  For  a  discussion  of  hell  in  ON.  see  Kahle,  I,  pp.  424-5,  II,  155-6,  in  OHG.  Raumer, 
pp.  414-16. 


129]  THE  FUTURE  LIFE  129 

426.  In  OE.  poetry  hel  is  common,  and  only  a  few  characteristic 
examples  need  be  given  here,  hu  heh  and  deop  hell  inneweard  seo,  /  grim 
grcefhus,  Sat.  707,  ponne  hel  nimed  /  wcerleasra  weorud,  Cr.  1613,  on  pa 
hatan  hell,  Gen.  331,  similarly  362,  etc.    As  hel  translates  Latin  infernus, 

the  Vulgate  rendering  of  Greek  a5r)s  and  the  Hebrew  7^5^,  its  meaning 
is  of  course  wider  than  a  place  of  punishment.  We  note,  astigon  heo  on 
helle  heonan  lifgende  {descendant  in  infemum  viventes),  Ps.  LIV,  14,  pu  mine 
sawle  swylce  alysdest  of  helwarena  hinderpeostrum  {eruisti  animam  meam  ex 
inferno  inferiori),  LXXXV,  12,  is  minfeorh  swylce  to  helldore  hylded  geneahhe 
{vita  mea  inferno  appropinquavit) ,  LXXXVII,  3. 

427.  Hell  certainly  receives  its  share  of  attention  at  the  hands  of  OE. 
poets,  who  seem  to  be  especially  anxious  to  describe  this  dreary  place 
adequately.  While  it  is  outside  of  our  task  to  paint  a  picture  of  hell,  and 
we  shall  mention  only  a  few  main  points  in  the  following  discussion,  it  may 
be  convenient  to  give  the  Anglo-Saxon  poets'  conception  of  hell  by  citing 
Becker:18  "Hell  is  a  dark  pit  under  the  earth,  incalculably  immense  in 
area,  shrouded  in  eternal  darkness.  The  principal  torment  is  that  of  fire,  but 
the  flame  is  black,  and  burns  without  light.  Side  by  side  with  extreme  heat 
is  the  torment  of  cold;  storms  of  wind,  hail,  and  frost  sweep  down  from  the 
four  corners  of  hell.  Frightful  monsters,  dragons,  serpents,  bloody  eagles, 
people  the  awful  depths,  and  dragons  guard  the  entrance.  The  sinful 
souls  are  bound  down  with  fetters,  suffering  the  utmost  agonies  of  mind 
in  addition  to  those  of  the  body.  Consumed  with  bitter  remorse  and  des- 
pair, they  must  remain  thus  eternally,  without  hope  of  ever  being  released 
from  their  sufferings  or  of  gaining  the  bliss  of  the  righteous,  which  they 
are  forced  to  look  upon. " 

428.  Though  the  definite  location  of  hell  is  not  given,  it  is  below,  under 
the  earth.  We  read,  {Etne)  pat  mon  helle  fyr  hated  wide,  Met.  VIII,  54, 
helle  seced  /  .  .  .  grundleasne  wylm  /  under  mistglome,  Whale  45-7,  done 
deopan  wcelm,  /  nidcer  undcer  nessas  in  done  neowlan  grund  /  grcedige  and 
gifre,  Sat.  30-32,  similarly  Gu.  535,  etc.  As  Heaven  is  a  kingdom,  so  also 
hell,  in  which  Satan  rules,  helwarena  cyning,  Jul.  544,  etc.  Sal.  106  speaks 
of  it  as  dees  engestan  edelrices,  with  which  may  be  compared  in  pam  engan 
ham,  El.  920,  etc.  However,  it  seems  to  Mac  bealowes  gast,  pcet  he  on  botme 
stod,  J  .  .  .  pat  panon  wcere  /  to  helle  duru  hund  pusenda  /  mila  gemear- 
codes,  Sat.  721-4.  But,  as  Becker19  has  pointed  out,  "the  terms  of  spacious- 
ness are  to  be  interpreted  literally,  whereas  those  of  narrowness  permit  of 
no  other  than  a  figurative  interpretation,"  so  that  he  would  take  enge  in 

18  Mediaeval  Visions,  pp.  63-4.  Compare  also  p.  58  ff.,  Deering,  48  £L,  Klaeber,  Anglia, 
XXXV,  265  ff.;  for  kennings,  Bode,  75  f.,  Jansen,  29  f.,  Rankin,  LX,  54  ff.  For  a  discussion 
of  the  sources  of  the  characteristics  of  hell  see  Deering,  p.  57  ff.,  Becker,  11  ff.,  54  ff.,  Abbet- 
meyer,  16. 

19  Mediaeval  Visions,  p.  58. 


130  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  [130 

the  sense  of  oppressive.  Hell  is  also  called  magburg,  Har.  91,  of  feonda 
byrig,  Cr.  569,  helwara  /  burg,  Rid.  56,  6-7,  deafisele,  Gu.  1048,  while  sim'lar 
terms  are  frequent.  The  doors  of  hell  are  often  mentioned,  as,  he  helle 
duru  I  forbrcBC  andforbegde,  Sat.  467,  behliden  helle  duru,  El.  1229,  at  heldore, 
Gu.  531,  etc.  It  is  stated,  Mce  at  helle  duru  dracan  eardigad,  Sat.  98,  while 
influenced  by  the  preceding  figure  Whale  76  and  78  reads,  pa  grimman 
goman  /  .  .  .  /  helle  hlinduru.  With  this  may  be  compared  ah  in  helle 
cafl  J  sid  asette,  And.  1703,  and  dreogap  deadcwale  in  dracan  fadme,  El.  765. 
Walls  and  other  parts  are  mentioned,  e.g.,  helle  weallas,  Har.  34,  helle 
floras,  Sat.  70,  hellegrund,  Soul  105,  in  helle  grund,  Cr.  562,  El.  1304,  etc. 

429.  Hell  is  the  place  of  punishment  for  the  devils  and  the  damned, 
in  ecefyr,  /  dar  ge  sceolon  dreogan  dead  andpystro,  Gu.  606-7.  As  Cr.  1535-6 
the  condemned  are  committed  to  forwyrde  on  witehus,  /  deadsele  deofles, 
so  this  state,  itself  is  called  se  eca  dead  after  dissum  worulde,  Met.  X,  70. 
Wlte,  n.,  or  hellewite,  is  often  used  to  denote  punishment,  just  as  we  find 
helliwizzi  in  OHG.,  helUiviti  in  OS.,  and  helviti  in  ON.,  a  rendering  of  the 
Latin  supplicium  inferni.  We  note,  helle  witum,  Soul  32,  in  wita  forwyrd, 
Sermon  Ps.  28,  10,  synna  to  wite,  Cr.  1623,  heardes  hellewites,  Gen.  303, 
alysdest  / fram  hceftnyde  hellewites,  L.  Prayer  II,  36.  We  find  further, 
pat  witescraf,  Sat.  691,  pat  witehus,  628,  and  pa  wyrrestan  witebrogan,  El. 
931,  etc. 

430.  References  to  the  agencies  of  punishment  are  often  found, 
especially  to  the  fire,  grim  hellefyr,  gearo  to  wite,  Cr.  1270,  under  helle  cinn 
in  pat  hate  fyr,  /  under  liges  locan,  1620-21,  pat  ge  warnysse  /  brynewylm 
habben,  nales  bletsunga,  Gu.  643-4,  in  fyrbade  /  walmum  biwrecene  wraplic 
andlean,  Cr.  831-2,  weallendne  lig  and  wyrma  slite  /  bittrum  ceaflum,  1251-2, 
etc.,  etc.  The  poets  seem  anxious  not  to  omit  a  detailed  description  of  the 
sufferings  the  doomed  have  to  undergo,  or,  in  the  words  of  Deering:20 
"Having  thus  drawn  such  frightful  pictures  of  the  horrors  of  hell,  the 
poets  might  have  left  their  readers  to  imagine  the  sufferings  of  the  damned, 
but  the  opportunity  of  impressing  these  dreadful  scenes  was  too  good  to 
be  lost,  and  they  cannot  resist  the  temptation  to  add  a  few  more  strokes 
to  their  already  horrible  pictures  and  tell  us  again  and  again  of  the  physical 
and  mental  tortures  of  this  eternal  punishment. " 

431.  The  condemned  are  often  called  the  cursed,  as,  Astigati  nuf 
awyrgde,  in  pat  witehus,  Sat.  628,  Farad  nu  awyrgde  willum  biscyrede  / 
engla  dreames  on  ece  fir,  Cr.  1520-1,  etc.  Warnis  (weargnes),  is  once  used 
in  the  sense  of  damnation,  pat  ge  (devils)  warnysse  /  brynewylm  habben, 
nales  bletsunga,  Gu.  643.  Among  other  kennings  for  the  doomed  we  note, 
unsalge,  Cr.  1288,  the  devil  being  called  unsalig,  Jul.  450,  the  Jews,  haled 

20  Page  54  f . 


131]  THE  FUTURE  LIFE  131 

unscelige,  And.  561,  and  heeled  hynfuse,  612;  we  find  helfuse  men,  Cr.  1124, 
while  the  Mermedonians  are  called  haled  hellfuse,  And.  50.  For  the  devil 
and  the  doomed  we  have  also  such  terms  as  grundfusne  gcest  gode  orfeorme, 
Moods  49,  firenfulra  fcege  gcestas,  Gu.  532,  peetfeegefole,  Cr.  1518,  synfulra 
weorud,  1229,  firensynnig  J ok,  1379,  unsyfre  folc,  1232,  etc.,  etc. 

432.  A  considerable  number  of  compounds  of  hel  are  found  in  the 
poetry.  Some  of  them  have  appeared  in  our  discussion,  while  a  number 
are  included  in  the  poetical  list.  Others  also  occur,  but  offering  nothing 
characteristic,  they  need  not  be  discussed. 


132 


INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY 


[132 


POETICAL  WORDS 

Here  are  listed  those  exclusively  religious  terms  which  occur  in  poetical 
texts  only.  Kennings  have  been  admitted  only  when  special  circumstances 
and  a  distinctly  religious  connotation  warranted  it.  If  a  word  occurs  only 
once,  the  exact  reference  has  been  given.  If  the  use  is  limited  to  a  single 
poem  where  it  is  found  more  than  once,  the  title  only  is  added. 


Adfyr,  sacrificial  fire,  Ex.  398. 

adloma,  one  crippled  by  fire,  devil, 
Gu.  884. 

sebebod,  command,  Ps. 

aeboda,  preacher,  Gu.  909. 

secrseft,  knowledge  of  law,  religion. 

sefenlac,  evening  sacrifice,  Ps.  CXL, 
3. 

aefremmende,  pious,  religious.  Jul. 
648. 

aefyllende,  pious,  Cr.  704. 

aelasrende,  teacher  of  the  law,  reli- 
gion, El.  506. 

selcrasftig,  omnipotent,  Met.  XX, 
38. 

eercwide,  prophesy  ?  Moods  4. 

jerendgast,  angel,  Gen.  2296. 

zeriht,  code  of  law  or  faith,  El. 

sewita,  counsellor,  El.  455. 

agilpan,  to  exult  in,  Soul  166. 

aglseccrseft,  evil  art,  And.  1362. 

anboren,  only  begotten. 

anbuend,  hermit,  Gu.  59. 

anseld,  hermitage,  Gu.  1214. 

argifa,  giver  of  benefits,  Gifts  11. 

aologa,  perjurer,  Cr.  1605. 

Bentld,  prayer  time,  Men.  75. 
bereotan,  to  bewail,  Har.  6. 
bernelac,  burnt  offering,  Ps.  L.  123. 
bismerleas,  blameless,  Cr.  1326. 
blsedgifa,  giver  of  prosperity,  And. 
braegdwls,  crafty,  Gu.  58. 
brynegield,  burnt  offering.  Gen. 


Ceargest,  sad  spirit,  devil,  Gu.  364. 
circnytt,  church  service,  Gifts  91. 
culpa  or  culpe,  fault,  sin,  Cr.  177. 
cusc,  modest,  virtuous,  Gen.  618. 

DaegweorSung,  feast  day,  El.  1233. 
deaSbeam,  deathbringing  tree,  Gen. 

638. 
dea<5firen,  deadly  sin,  Cr.  1207. 
deaSsele,  hell. 

deofolcund,  diabolical,  Jud.  61. 
deofoldsed,  fiendish  deed,  Dan.  18. 
deofolwltga,  wizard,  magician,  Dan. 

128. 
drencflod,  deluge, 
drut,  beloved  one,  Doom  291. 
dryhtendom,  majesty,  glory,  And. 

999. 

Eadfruma,    author    of    happiness, 

Cr.  532. 
eadgifa,  giver  of  prosperity,  And. 

1292. 
eadgifu,  gift  of  blessedness,  Jul. 
ealh,  temple, 
eallbeorht,  resplendent, 
eallhalig,  all-holy,  Ps.  CXXXI,  8. 

eallmiht,  omnipotence,  Ps.  CXXXV, 
12. 

ealwalda,  all-ruling,  almighty,  God, 

Christ. 
earfo'Scynn,    depraved   race,    Ps. 

LXXVII,  10. 


133] 


POETICAL  WORDS 


133 


(ge)edbyrdan,   to  regenerate,   Soul 

101,  Exeter  text, 
edwitspreca,  scoffer,  Gu.  418. 
efeneadig,    equally   blessed,    Hymn 

21. 
efeneardigende,   dwelling   together, 

Cr.  237. 
efenece,  co-eternal,  Cr. 
eftlean,  recompense,  Cr.  1100. 
egorhere,  flood,  deluge,  Gen. 
endelean,  final  retribution, 
engelcund,  angelic,  Gu.  72. 
engelcynn,  race  or  order  of  angels. 
eSelboda,  land's  apostle,  native 

preacher,  Gu.  976. 

Facendsed,  sin,  crime,  Ps.  CXVIII, 

53. 
facengeswipere,     deceit,     Ps. 

LXXXII,  3. 
facensearu,  treachery, 
facenstafas,  treachery,  deceit,  Beow. 

1018. 
facentacen,  sign  of  crime,  Cr.  1566. 
felameahtig,  most  mighty, 
felasynnig,  very  guilty,  Beow.  1379. 
feohglfre,  avaricious,  Wand.  68. 
feondset,  eating  things  sacrificed  to 

idols,  Ps.  CV,  24. 
feorhrsed,  salvation,  And.  1654. 
ferh<51ufu,  heartfelt  love,  And.  83. 
fifmsegen,   magic  power,   Sal.    136. 
firenbealu,  transgression,  Cr.  1276. 
firencrseft,  wickedness,  Jul.  14. 
firendjed,  wicked  deed,  crime, 
firenfremmende,  committing  sin,  Cr. 

1118. 
firengeorn,    prone     to    sin,    sinful, 

Cr.  1606. 
firensynnig,  sinful,  Cr.  1379. 
firenweorc,  evil  deed,  sin,  Cr. 
firenwyrcende,  sinning,  sinful,  Ps. 
firenwyrhta,  evil  doer,  Ps. 


forescyttels,  bolt,  bar,  Cr.  312. 
fortyhtan,  to  seduce,  El.  208. 
fortyllan,  to  seduce,  Cr.  270. 
friSoscealc,  angel,  Gen. 
frowe,  woman,  Doom  291. 
frumgesceap,  creation  of  the  world, 

Cr.  840. 
frumscyld,  original  sin,  Sal.  445. 
fulwihttid,  time  of  baptism,  Men. 

11. 
fulwihtSeaw,  rite  of  baptism,  Met. 

I,  33. 
fyrclom,  band  forged  in  the  fire,  in 

hell,  Sat.  39. 
fyrngidd,  ancient  prophesy,  El.  542. 
fyrnsceafta,  devil,  And.  1346. 
fyrnsynn,  sin  of  old  times,  Jul.  347. 

Galdorword,  magic  word,  Rim.  24. 
galmod,    wanton,    licentious,    Jud. 

256. 
gartorn,  fighting  rage,  Sal.  145. 
gastbona,  devil,  Beow.  177. 
gastcund,  spiritual,  Gu.  743. 
gastcwalu,  pains  of  hell,  Gu.  651. 
gastcyning,  God,  Gen.  2883. 
gastgenl<51a,  devil,  Jul.  245. 
gastgewinn,  pains  of  hell,  Gu.  561. 
gasthalig,  holy  in  spirit, 
gastlufu,  spiritual  love,  Az. 
gastsunu,  spiritual  son. 
geocund,  preserver,  Savior, 
geongerdom,  discipleship,  Gen. 
geongerscip,   allegiance,    Gen.   249. 
gifnes,  grace,  favor,  L.  Prayer  III. 
gledstede,  altar,  Gen. 
goddream,  joy  in  Heaven,  Gu. 
godegyld,  idol,  Ps.  CV,  17. 
godgim,  heavenly  jewel,  El.  1113. 
gods£d,  piety,  Dan.  90. 
godscyld,  sin  against  gods,  impiety, 

Jul.  204. 
godscyldig,  impious,  Gu.  834. 


134 


INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY 


[134 


grandorleas,  guileless,  Jul.  271. 
grornhof,  sad  home,  hell,  Jul.  324. 
grundfus,  hastening  to  hell,  Moods 
49. 

Haelubearn,  Savior,  Christ,  Cr. 
hgeSencyning,   heathen  king,   Dan. 

54.  " 
hseSencynn,     heathen    race,     Gen. 

2546. 
hseSenstyrc,  heathen  calf,  Ps.  CV, 

17. 
hseSenweoh,  heathen  sacrifice,  Jul. 

53. 
halor,  salvation,  Jul. 
halswurtmng,    thanksgiving   for 

safety,  Ex.  581. 
handgift,   wedding  present,    Creed 

18. 
heahblis,   exultation,   Ps.   CXVIII, 

111. 
heahboda,  archangel,  Cr.  295. 
?  heahcasere,  Christ,  L.  Prayer  III, 

60. 
heahfrea,  high  Lord,  Cr. 
heahgsest,  Holy  Ghost,  Cr.  358. 
heahgesceap,  divine  destiny,  Beow. 

3084. 
heahgod,  most  high,  God,  Ps.  LVI, 

2. 
heahheort,  proud,  Dan.  540. 
heahmiht,  high  authority,  great 

might,  Ps.  CL,  2. 
?  heahnama,  most  exalted  name,  L. 

Prayer  III,  18. 
heargtraef,  idol  temple,  Beow.  175. 
heargweard,  temple  warden,  priest, 

And.  1124. 
hellbend,  bond  of  hell,  Beow.  3072. 

Some    terms    quoted    with    hell 

possibly  not  compounds, 
hellcraeft,  hellish  power,  And.  1102. 
hellcwalu,  pains  of  hell,  Cr.   1190. 


helldor,  gate  of  hell, 
hellebealu,  hell  bale,  Cr.  1427. 
helleceafl,  jaws  of  hell,  And.  1703. 
hellecinn,  hellish  race,  Cr.  1620. 
helleclamm,  hellbond,  Gen.  373. 
helledeofol,  devil, 
helledor,  gate  of  hell,  Har.  87. 
helleduru,  gate  of  hell,  El.  1229. 
helleflor,  floor  of  hell,  Sat.  70. 
hellegast,  spirit  of  hell, 
hellegrund,  abyss  of  hell, 
hellegryne,  horror  of  hell,  Sat.  433. 
hellehaeft,  prisoner  of  hell,  Sat.  631. 
hellehagfta,  prisoner  of  hell,  Beow. 

788. 
hellehseftling,  prisoner  of  hell, 
helleheaf,  wailings  of  hell,  Gen.  38. 
hellehinca,  hell-limper,  devil,  And. 

1171. 
hellehtis,  hell-house,  Gu.  649. 
hellenrS,  torments  of  hell,  Gen.  771. 
hellescealc,  devil,  Sat.  133. 
helleSegn,  devil,  Gu.  1042. 
hellfiren,  hellish  crime,  Partridge  6. 
hellfus,  bound  for  hell, 
hellgebwing,    confinement    in    hell, 

Gen.  696. 
helltrsef,  devil's  temple,  And.  1691. 
helltrega,  hell-torture,  Gen.  73. 
helruna,  hellish  monster,  Beow.  163. 
heofonbeorht,  heavenly  bright, 
heofonbyme,  heavenly  trumpet,  Cr. 

949. 
heofondema,    heavenly    ruler     Sat. 

658. 
heofondream,  joy  of  Heaven, 
heofonduguft,    heavenly    host,    Cr. 

1655. 
heofonengel,  angel  of  Heaven, 
heofonhalig,     holy    and    heavenly, 

And.  728. 
he6fonham,  heavenly  home. 


135] 


POETICAL  WORDS 


135 


heofonhlaf,   bread   of   Heaven,   Ps. 

CIV,  35. 
heofonleoht,   heavenly   light,    And. 

974. 
heofonmaegen,  heavenly  force, 
heofonsetl,  throne  of  Heaven,  Doom 

277. 
heofonstol,  throne  of  Heaven,  Gen. 

8. 
heofon<5reat,    heavenly    company, 

Sat.  222. 
heofonweard,  God,  Gen. 
heofonwuldor,    heavenly    glory,    L. 

Prayer  II,  12. 
heortlufu,  heart-love,  Dox.  29. 
heterun,     charm     which     produces 

hate,  Rid.  34,  7. 
hildedeofol,  demon,  Ps.  XCV,  5. 
hinder'Seostru,  nether  darkness,  Ps. 

LX20CV,  12. 
hospcwide,    insulting    speech,    El. 

523. 
huslbearn,  communicant,  Gu.  531. 
hiislwer,  communicant,  Gu.  768. 
hygeclsene,  pure  in  heart,  Ps.  CIV, 

3. 
hygefrofor,  consolation, 
hygetreow,  fidelity,  Gen.  2367. 
hygeSryS,    pride,    insolence,    Gen. 

2238. 
hyhtgifa,  giver  of  hope,  El.  851. 
hyhtleas,  unbelieving,  Gen.  2387. 
hyhtwilla,  hoped  for  joy,  Sat.  159. 
hyhtwyn,  joy  of  hope,  Jud.  121. 

Ingebed,    earnest    prayer,    Ps. 

LXXXVII,  2. 
:nwitstaef,  wickedness,  evil,  Ps. 

Leahtorcwide,  blasphemy,  Jul.  199. 
leohtfruma,  source  of  light, 
liffrea,  Lord  of  life,  God. 
liffruma,  source  of  life,  God. 


lifweard,   guardian  of  life,   Christ, 

El.  1035. 
llgcwalu,  fiery  torment,  hell,  El.  296. 
lofmsegen,  praise,  Ps.  CV,  2. 
lofsum,  praiseworthy,  Gen.  468. 
lustgryn,  snare  of  pleasure,  Soul  23. 
lygenword,  lie,  Gen.  699. 
lygesynnig,  lying,  false,  El.  898. 
lygewyrhta,  liar,  Sermon  Ps.  28,  11. 

Maegenwundor,  striking  wonder,  Cr. 

927. 
manfsehSu,  wickedness,  Gen.  1378. 
manfolm,  evil  doer,  Ps.  CXLIII,  8. 
manforwyrht,    evil    deed,    sin,    Cr. 

1095. 
manfrea,  lord  of  evil,  devil, 
manfremmende,  sinning, 
mangeniola,   evil  persecutor,   And. 

916. 
mangewyrhta,  sinner,  Ps.  LXXVII, 

38, 
manhus,  home  of  wickedness,  hell, 

Ex.  535. 
mansceat,  usury,  Ps.  LXXI,  14. 
manscild,   crime,  fault,  sin,  Hymn 

23. 
manscyldig,  criminal,  guilty,  Gen. 
manwamm,  guilty  of  stain,  Cr.  1280. 
manword,  wicked  word,  Ps.  LVIII, 

12. 
manwyrhta,  evil  doer,  sinner,  Ps. 
mereciest,  sea-chest,  ark,  Gen.  1317. 
metod,  fate,  Creator',  God,  Christ, 
micelmod,    magnanimous,    Ps. 

CXLIV,  3. 
misgedwild,  error,  perversion,  Jul. 

326. 
modgehyldig,  patient,  And.  981. 
mor<5orhof,   place   of   torment,    El. 

1302. 
morSorhus,  house  of  torment,   Cr. 

1625. 


136 


INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY 


[136 


morSorlean,  retribution  for  sin,  Cr. 

1612. 
morSorscyldig,  guilty,  And.  1599. 

Neodlof,    zealous    praise,    Ps. 

CXLVIII,  12. 
neodweorSung,    zealous    honoring, 

Ps.  CXLII,  11. 
nloloca,  place  of  torment,  Har.  64. 
niSsynn,  grievous  sin,  Sat.  180. 


sigebeam,  cross. 

sigebearn,  Christ. 

sigedema,  victorious  judge,  God. 

sigetlber,  sacrifice  for  victory,  Ex. 
402. 

sigortlfer,  offering  for  victory,  Jul. 
255. 

snytrohus,  house  of  wisdom,  taber- 
nacle, Ps.  LXXVII,  60. 

soScyning,  God. 


soSfaeder,  God,  Cr.  103. 
Ofersjelig,  excessively  happy,  Doom     suslbona,  devil,  Sat.  640. 


246. 
ofersgelS,   excessive  pleasure,   Met. 

V,  27. 
oferwealdend,   over-lord,    God,   El. 

1235. 
onblotan,  to  sacrifice,  Gen.  2933. 

(Ge)palmtwlgan,    deck   with   palm 
branches,  Sal. 


suslhof,  place  of  torment,  Creed  32. 
sweglcyning,  king  of  Heaven, 
sweglwuldor,   heavenly   glory,    Gu. 

1160. 
sweglwundor,  heavenly  wonder,  Gu. 

1292. 
sygegealdor,  victory-bringing 

charm,  Charm  VIII,  6. 
synfah,  sin-stained,  Cr.  1083. 
synrust,  canker  of  sin,  Cr.  1321. 
Regolfaest,    adhering    to    monastic     synscea*8a,  sin-stained  wretch,  sin- 
rules,  Men.  44.  ful  outrager. 
reSehygdig,  right-minded,  Alms  2.      synscyldig,  wicked,  Doom  168. 


reSeman,  usurer,  Ps.  CVIII,  11. 
rodorcyning,  king  of  Heaven, 
rodorstol,    heavenly    throne,    Gen. 
749. 

Sawelcund,  spiritual,  Gu.  288. 

sclngelac,  magical  practices,  And. 
766. 

scuccgyld,  idol,  Ps.  CV,  26. 

scyldfrecu,  wicked  craving,  Gen. 
898. 

scyldwreccende,  avenging  sin,  Cr. 
1161. 

scyldwyrcende,  evil  doing. 

sealmfaet,  in  'on  sealmfatum'  ren- 
dering L.  'in  vasis  psalmi,'  Ps. 
LXX,  20. 

selfsceaft,  not  begotten^  Gen.  523. 


synwracu,  punishment  for  sin. 
synwyrcende,  sinning. 

TeonsmiS,  evil-doer,  devil,  Gu.  176. 
tlrfruma,  price  of  glory,  Cr.  206. 
treowlufu,  true  love,  Cr.  538. 
treowrSden,  state  of  fidelity,  Gen. 
2305. 

Drymcyme,    glorious    coming,    Gu. 

1230. 
<5rymcyning,  king  of  glory,  God. 
<5rymsittende,  dwelling  in  Heaven. 
'SryScyning,    king    of    glory,    God, 

And.  436. 

Unbealu,  innocence,  Ps.  C,  2. 
unbeted,  unatoned,  Cr.  1312. 


137] 


POETICAL  WORDS 


137 


ungebletsod,  'non  habentes  signa- 

culum  Christi,'  Jul.  492. 
ungeleaf,  unbelieving,  Ps.  LXVII, 

19. 
unholda,  devil,  Cr.  762. 
unhwllen,  eternal, 
unrihtdom,  iniquity,  Dan.  183. 
unrihtfeoung,    unrighteous    hate, 

Met.  XXVII,  1. 
untweod,  undoubting,  And.  1242. 
upeard,  Heaven,  Gu.  1051. 
upengel,  heavenly  angel. 

WaegSreat,  deluge,  Gen.  1352. 

waelregn,  deluge,  Gen.  1350. 

wserloga,  traitor,  liar,  devil. 

wamcwide,  shameful  speech,  curse,      wuldormaga,  heir  of  Heaven,   Gu. 


wliteandet,  confession  of  splendor, 

Ps.  CIII,  2. 
wohfremmend,  evil  doer,  Met.  IX, 

36. 
worulddrihten,  Lord  of  the  world, 

God,  Met.  XXIX,  1. 
woruldgltsere,    coveter    of    worldly 

things,  Met.  XIV,  1. 
wrohtscipe,  crime,  Gen.  1672. 
wrohtsmiS,  evil  doer, 
wuldorcyning,  God. 
wuldordream,  heavenly  rapture, 
wuldorfseder,  Father  of  Glory, 
wuldorgast,  angel,  Gen.  2912. 
wuldorhama,  garb  of  glory, 
wuldorlean,  glorious  reward. 


blasphemy, 
wamdsed,  deed  of  shame,  crime, 
wamful,    impure,    shameful,   sinful, 

bad. 
wamsceaSa,  sin-stained  foe,  devil, 
wamscyldig,  sinful,  criminal,  Gen. 

949. 
wamwyrcende,   worker   of  sin,    Cr. 

1093. 


1076. 
wuldormago,  heir  of  Heaven,   Gu. 

1267. 
wuldormicel,    gloriously    great,    L. 

Prayer  III,  94. 
wuldorweorud,  heavenly  host,   Cr. 

285. 
wuldorword,  glorious  word,  L. 

Prayer  III,  46. 


weargtrsef,   home   of   the   damned,      wynpsalterium,   psalm  of  joy,   Ps. 


hell,  El.  926. 

weolme,  choice,  Cr.  445. 

wlgsmi(5,  maker  of  idols,  Ps.  CXIII, 
12. 

wlgweorSung,  idol  worship,  idolatry. 

wilboda,  angel,  Gu.  1220. 

witehrsegl,  penitential  garb,  sack- 
cloth, Ps.  LXVIII,  11. 

wltescraef,  hell,  Sat.  691. 

wiSerbroga,  devil,  Cr.  564. 


LVI,  10. 

wynrdd,  blessed  cross,  Sal.  235. 
wyrdstaef,  decree  of  fate,  Gu.  1325. 
wyrmgeard,  abode  of  serpents,  Sal. 

468. 
wyrmsele,  hell,  Jud.  119. 

Yfelsaec  (eofulsaec),  blasphemy,  El. 

524. 
yrreweorc,  work  of  c.nger,  Sat.  399. 


A  few  remarks  on  the  terms  thus  listed  by  us  will  not  be  without 
interest.  Of  the  343  words  261  occur  only  once,  23  are  confined  to  one  poem, 
being  found  more  than  once,  while  59  occur  in  more  than  one  poem. 
Regarding  the  distribution  as  to  poems,  we  note  that  44  are  found  exclu- 
sively in  Christ,  16  in  Elene,  and  14  in  Juliana,  in  all  74  for  Cynewulf;  in 
addition,  a  number  of  terms  are  peculiar  to  the  three  poems.    As  to  the 


138 


INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY 


[138 


other  chief  poems,  the  exclusive  occurrence  of  terms  is  as  follows,  40  in 
Psalms,  including  Psalm  L  (Cottoniana),  34  in  Genesis,  27  in  Guthlac, 
19  in  Andreas,  10  in  Christ  and  Satan,  8  in  Beowulf,  7  in  Meters,  6  in  Salo- 
mon and  Saturn,  5  in  Daniel,  5  in  Doomsday,  4  in  Judith,  and  4  in  Exodus, 
while  none  is  found  in  Phenix. 


LOAN  WORDS 

Abbot,  L.  abbatem 
aelmesse,  L.  eleemosyna 

Amen,  L.  Amen 

apostol,  L.  apostolus 

bisceop,  L.  episcopus  or  Gr.  kwiaKOTrn 

cantic,  L.  canticum 

(Cherubin),  L. 

cirice,  Gr.  nvpiaKa 

Cr:st,  crlst,  L. 

crlsten,  L. 

cristnian,  L. 

culpa,  L.  culpa 

deofol,  L.  diabolus  or  Gr.  5id/3oXos 


dlacon,  L.  diaconus 

drut,  OF.  drut 

dry,  Celtic  ?! 

earc,  earce,  L.  area 

(Ebreas),  L. 

engel,  L.  angelus  or  Gr.  ayye\o<; 


(Gabriel),  L. 

(Israel),  L. 
(Judeas),  L. 
(Lucifer),  L. 
maesse,  L.  missa 
maessere,  L. 


HYBRIDS 


aslmesgeorn 
aelmessylen 

apostolhad 
bisceophad 


circnyt 
ciricsocn 


deofolcund 
deofoldagd 
deofolgild 
deofol  vvltga 
hildedeofol 


drycraeft 


engelcund 

engelcyn 

heahengel 

heofonengel 

upenge 


heahcasere,  L.  Caesarem 


hlafmaesse 


139] 


LOAN  WORDS  AND  HYBRIDS 


139 


manna,  L.  manna 
martyr(e),  L.  martyr 

(Michael),  L. 
munuc,  L.  monachus 
mynster,  L.  monasterium 


papa,  L.  papa 

Pater  Noster,  L.  Pater  Noster 
pentecosten,  L.  pentecoste 
preost,  L.  presbyter 
psalterium,  L.  psalterium 
regol,  L.  regula 
reliquias,  L.  reliquiae 
sacerd,  L.  sacerdos 

salletan,  L.  psallere 
sanctus,  sanct,  L.  sanctus 
(Satanus,  Satan),  L. 
scrlfan,  for-,  ge-,  L.  scribere 
scrift,  L.  scriptum 
sealm,  L.  psalmus 
seono<5,  L.  synodus 
(Seraphim),  L. 

tempel,  L.  templum 
ymen,  L.  hymnus 


martyrdom 
martyrhad 


palmtreow,    L.    pa'mus 
(ge)palmtwlgan,  L. 


wynpsalterium 
regolfsest 

sacerdhad 
ealdorsacerd 


sealmfaet 


suSportic,  L.   porticus 


140 


INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY 


[140 


TITLES  AND  ABBREVIATIONS 

I.     Titles  and  Abbreviations  Referring  to  the  Bibliotheh  der  angelsachsischen  Poesie,  Volumes 

I-III,  by  Grein-Wuelker 

Alms.  Bibl.    Ill,  p.  181. 

And.  Andreas.    II,  pp.  1-86. 

Ap.  Fates  of  the  Apostles.    II,  87-91. 

Az.  Azarias.    II,  491,  493,  495;  497,  516-520. 

Beow.  Beowulf.    I,  149-277. 

Cffidmon's  Hymn.    II,  316-317. 

Charm  I-VIII.    Bibl.  I,  312-330. 

Chr.  I-V.  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle.    I,  374-388. 

I.  On  the  Victory  of  ^Ethelstan  at  Brunanburh. 
II.  Edmund. 

III.  Eadgar. 

IV.  Capture  and  Death  of  Alfred. 
V.  Eadweard's  Death. 

Cr.  Christ.    Ill,  1-54. 

Creed  (Hy.  X  in  Grein's  Sprachschatz).    n,  245-249. 

Dan.  Daniel.    II,  476-515. 

Deor.  Deor's  Lament.    I,  278-280. 

Doom.    Be  Domes  Daege.    II,  250-272. 

Dox.  Doxology  (Gloria  in  Bibl.,  Hy.  IX  in  Grein's  Sprachschatz).    II,  239-244. 

Durham.    I  391-392. 

El.  Elene.    II,  126-201. 

Ex.  Exodus.    II,  445^75. 

Exhortation  (Ermahnung  zum  christlichen  Leben  in  Bibl.).    II,  273-276. 

Fates.    Fates  of  Men.    Ill,  148-151. 

Gen.    Genesis.    II,  318-444. 

Gifts.    Gifts  of  Men.    Ill,  140-143. 

Gn.  Cot.    Gnomic  Verses,  Cotton  MS.    I,  338-341. 

Gn.  Ex.    Gnomic  Verses,  Exeter  Book.    I,  341-352. 

Gu.    Guthlac.    Ill,  55-94. 

Har.    Harrowing  of  Hell.    Ill,  175-180. 

Hymn  (Hymnus  in  Bibl.,  Hy.  VIII  in  Grein's  Sprachschatz).    II,  224-226. 

Instructions.    A  Father's  Instructions  to  His  Son.    I,  353-357. 

Invocation  (Aufforderung  zum  Gebet  in  Bibl.).    II,  277-279. 

Jud.    Judith.    11,294-314. 

Judg.    The  Last  Judgment.    Ill,  171-174. 

Jul.    Juliana.    Ill,  117-139. 

L.  Prayer.    Lord's  Prayer  I-III  (Hy.  V-VH  in  Grein's  Sprachschatz).    II,  227-238. 

Maldon.    Battle  of  Maldon.    I,  358-373. 

Maxims  (Bruchstuck  eines  Lehrgedichts  in  Bibl.,  Hy.  XI  in  Grein's  Sprachschatz).    n. 

280-281. 
Men.    Menology.    II,  282-293. 
Message.    Husband's  Message.    1, 309-311. 


141]  TITLES  AND  ABBREVIATIONS  141 

Met.    Meters  of  Boethius.    Ill,  247-303. 

Moods.    Moods  of  Men.    Ill,  144-147. 

Panther.    Ill,  164-166. 

Partridge.    Ill,  170. 

Ph.    Phenix.    111,95-116. 

Prayer  I-P7  (Hy.  I-IV  in  Grein's  Sprachschatz).    II,  211-223. 

Ps.    Psalms.    111,329-476. 

Ps.  L.    Ps.  L  (Cottoniana).    Ill,  477-482. 

Rid.    Riddles.    Ill,  183-238. 

Rim.    Riming  Poem.     Ill,  160-163. 

Rood.    Dream  of  the  Rood.    II,  114-125. 

Ruin.    Ruined  Burg.     1,298-301. 

Run.    Runic  Poem.     I,  331-337. 

Sal.    Salomon  and  Saturn.    Ill,  304-328. 

Sat.     Christ  and  Satan.    II,  521-562. 

Seaf.    Seafarer.    1, 290-295. 

Sermon  Ps.  28  (Predigtbruchstuck  iiber  Ps.  28  in  Bibl.).    II,  108-110. 

Soul.     Soul  and  Body,  VerceUi  text,  unless  otherwise  noted.    II,  92-107. 

Wald.    Waldere.    I,  11-13. 

Wand.    Wanderer.     1, 284-289. 

Whale.    Ill,  167-169. 

Wid.    Widsith.    I,  1-6. 

Wonders.    Wonders  of  Creation.    Ill,  152-155. 

II.    Other  Abbreviations 

A  few  abbreviations  from  the  NED.  are  also  used.    Others  will  be  interpreted  without 
difficulty. 

Bibl.    Bibliothek  der  angelsachsichen  Poesie,  Grein-Wuelker. 
B.-T.    Bosworth-Toller,  Anglo-Saxon  Dictionary. 
Dichtungen.    Dichtungen  der  Angelsachsen,  Grein. 
Goth.     Gothic. 
Gr.    Greek. 

Grimm,  D.  M.    Deutsche  Mythologie,  4.  Auflage. 

Kahle,  I.     Die  altnordische  Sprache  im  Dienste  des  Christentums.     I.  Teil:  Die  Prosa. 
Kahle,  II.    Das  Christentum  in  der  altwestnordischen  Dichtung. 
L.    Latin. 

MacG.     MacGillivray,  The  Influence  of  Christianity  on  the  Vocabulary  of  Old  English. 
NED.    New  English  Dictionary. 
OE.    Old  English. 
OFris.    Old  Frisian. 
OHG.    Old  High  German. 
ON.    Old  Norse. 
OS.    Old  Saxon. 
OTeut.    Original  Teutonic. 
Rankin,  VIII  and  LX.     A  Study  of  Kennings  in  Anglo  Saxon  Poetry  in  The  Journal  of 

English  and  Germanic  Philology,  Volumes  VIH  and  LX. 
Raumer.     Die  Einwirkung  des  Christentums  auf  die  Althochdeutsche  Sprache. 
Sprachschatz.     Sprachschatz  der  angelsachsischen  Dichter,  Grein,  2.  Auflage. 
W.-W.    Wright-Wuelker,  Anglo-Saxon  and  Old  English  Vocabularies. 


142 


INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY 


[142 


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1899. 
Bede.    De  Temporum  Ratione.    Migne,  Patrologiae  Latinae,  XC,  p.  234  ff. 
Historia  Ecclesiastica.    Migne,  Patrologiae  Latinae,  XCV,  p.  25  ff. 
Ecclesiastical  History  of  England.    Edited  by  Giles,  Bonn's  Antiquarian  Library, 
London,  1894. 
Blackburn,  F.  A.     The  Christian  Coloring  in  the  Beowulf.    Publ.  Mod.  L.  ASS.  of  America, 

XII,  pp.  205-225. 
Bode,  W.    Die  Kenningar  in  der  Ags.  Dichtung.    Darmstadt  &  Leipzig,  1886. 
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Bosworth-Toller.    An  Anglo-Saxon  Dictionary.    Oxford,  1898,  with  Supplements  I  &  II, 

1908  &  1916. 
Bouterweck,.  K.  W.     Ccedmon's  des  Angelsachsen  Biblische  Dichtungen.     Guetersloh,  1854. 
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Niort,  1883-87. 
Ehrismann,  G.    Religions geschichtliche  Beitrdge  zum  germanischen  Fruhchristentum.    Paul 

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Encyclopaedia  Britannica.     11.  Edition.     Cambridge,  1910-11. 

Falk-Torp.    Norwegisch-Ddnisches  Etymologisches  Worterbuch.    2  Vols.    Heidelberg,  1910-11. 
Ferrell,  C.  C.     Teutonic  Antiquities  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  Genesis.    Diss.  Halle,  1893. 
Golther,  W.    Handbuch  der  Germanischen  Mythologie.    Leipzig,  1895. 
Grau,  G.    Quellen  und  Verwandschaften  der  dlteren  germanischen  Darstellungen  des  jungsten 

Gerichtes.    Diss.     Halle,  1908. 
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Sprachschatz  der  angelsdchsischen  Dichter.    2.  Auflage.     Heidelberg,  1912. 
Grein-Wuelker.    Bibliothek  der  angelsdchsischen  Poesie.    3  Vols.     Kassel  &  Leipzig,  1883-98. 
Grimm,  J.    Deutsche  Mythologie.    4.  Auflage.    3  Vols.     Guetersloh,  1875. 
Gummere,  F.  B.    Germanic  Origins.    New  York,  1892. 

Hall,  J.  R.  Clark.    A  Concise  Anglo-Saxon  Dictionary.    2nd  Edition.    New  York,  1916. 
Hunt,  Wm.     The  English  Church,  from  its  Foundation  to  the  Norman  Conquest.    London,  1899. 
Jansen,  G.     Beitrage  zur  Synonymik  und  Poetik  der  allgemein  als  acht  anerkannten  Dichtungen 

Cynewulfs.    Diss.     Muenster,  1883. 
Kahle,  B.    Die  altnordische  Sprache  im  Dienste  des  Christentums.    I.  Teil:  Die  Prosa.     Acta 
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Das  Christentum  in  der  altwestnordischen  Dichtung.    Arkiv  f.  Nord.  Fil.  N.  S., 
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Kent,  C.  W.    Elene.     (Latin  source  printed  below  the  text.)     Boston,  1891. 

Teutonic  Antiquities  in  Andreas  and  Elene.    Diss.    Leipzig,  1887. 
Klaeber,  Fr.    Die  christlichen  Elemente  im  Beowulf.    Anglia,  XXXV,  pp.  111-136,  249-270, 

453-482,  XXXVI,  169-199. 
Kluge,  F.    Etymologisches  Worterbuch  der  Deutschen  Sprache.    7.  Auflage.     Strassburg,  1910. 
Gotische  Lehnworte  im  AlthocJideutschen.    Paul  und  Braune's  Beitrage,  XXXV, 
pp.  124-160. 

Urgermanisch:  Vorgeschichte  der  altgermanischen   Dialekte    (Paul's   Grundriss) 
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Rrapp,  G.  Ph.    Andreas  and  the  Fates  of  the  Apostles.    Boston,  1906. 
Lingard,  J.     The  History  and  Antiquities  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church.     2  Vols.     2nd  Edition. 

London, 1858. 
Loehe,  H.    Be  Domes  Dcege.     (Gives  also  Hymnus  De  Die  Judicii.)     Bonner  Beitrage  zur 

Anglistik,  XXII,  pp.  1-106. 
MacGillivray,  H.  S.     The  Influence  of  Christianity  on  the  Vocabidary  of  Old  English.    Halle, 

1902. 
Migne,  J.  P.    Patrologiae  Cursa?  Computus.    Paris,  1857-1903. 

Murray,  J.  A.  H.    A  New  English  Dictionary  on  Historical  Principles,  etc.    Oxford,  1888-. 
Paul,  H.    Grundriss  der  germanischen  Philologie.    I.    2.  Auflage.     Strassburg,  1901. 
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Altenglischen.    Quellen  und  Forschungen,  LXIV.     Strassburg,  1888. 
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Leipzig,  1896. 
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Germanic  Philology,  VIII,  pp.  357-422,  IX,  49-84. 
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1889. 
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Diss.     Halle,  1906. 
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Poetry.    Modern  Philology,  IV,  pp.  423-470. 
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English,  XXIII.     New  York,  1904. 
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Boston,  1904. 
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Geschichte.    2.  Auflage.    Marburg,  1862. 
Weinhold,  K.    Die  Gotische  Sprache  im  Dienste  des  Christentums.    Halle,  1870. 
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144 


INDEX 


[144 


INDEX 

Unless  otherwise  indicated,  the  numbers  refer  to  sections.  Compounds  not  listed 
separately  will  be  found  under  the  simple  word.  For  poetical  terms  not  given  here 
compare  p.  132  ff. 


Abbot,  73. 
abelgan,  361. 
abiddan,  107. 
abylgan,  361. 
acyrran,  379. 
a,  150,  345. 
jebebod,  151. 
£boda,  105,  151. 
aebylg,  361. 
aebylgnes,  361. 
aebylgo",  361. 
jlecraeft,  151. 
secrseftig,  151. 
aefsest,  151,  401. 
sefenlac,  102,  p.  12. 
sefest,  357. 
aefnan,  402. 
jefremmende,  151,  402 
Eefyllende,  151. 
aegleaw,  151. 
ffilarend,  2,  151. 
Slmesgeorn,  404. 
selmesse,  404. 
aslmessylen,  404. 
aelmihtig,  207. 
jercwide,  32. 
serendian,  122. 
jferendraca,  36,  310. 
Eeriht,  151. 
serist,  258. 
adding,  279. 
jewita,  151. 
agend,  195,  280. 
agifan,  229. 
agyltan,  336. 
aherian,  126. 
ahon,  248. 
ahreowan,  383. 
al£tan,  229. 
aleogan,  350. 


alwalda,  187. 
alysan,  228,  260. 
alysend,  228. 
alysing,  229. 
alysnes,  228. 
^amen,  115. 
anboren,  p.  12. 
anbuend,  70. 
ancenned,  p.  12. 
andettan,  120. 
andetnes,  121. 
anlicnes,  182. 
annes,  178,  p.  12- 
anseld,  70,  note  17. 
apostol,  34,  35. 
apostolhad,  35. 
ar,  230,  307,  315. 
are,  230. 
arfasst,  401. 
arfaestnes,  220,  401. 
arisan,  258. 
a?5,  351. 
a'Sloga,  351. 
awyrgan,  353,  431. 

Bselc,  356. 

beacen,  255,  compounds  of,  255. 

beam,  254,  compounds,  254. 

beam,  267,  268,  compounds,  267. 

bebod,  161. 

bee,  149,  p.  12. 

belgan,  361. 

ben,  111. 

bena,  113. 

bernelac,  102. 

bespanan,  370. 

beswican,  370. 

betan,  386. 

biddan,  106. 

bigan,  385. 


145] 


INDEX 


145 


biscop,  2,  54,  55,  56,  p.  8. 

biscophad,  57. 

bismer,  348. 

bletsian,  137,  225. 

bletsung,  225. 

blis,  424. 

bocera,  2. 

bod,  161. 

boda,  30,  31,  105,  307,  315, 

compounds,  310,  315. 

bodian,  104. 

bodscipe,  161. 

bot,  381,  386. 

brego,  190. 

brerne,  216. 

breostgehygd,  367. 

broSor.  39. 

brytta,  199. 

bycgan,  261. 

bysmerian,  348. 

Cafertun,  83. 

can  tic,  114. 

casere,  274. 

ceapian,  261. 

cempa,  38. 

Cherubim,  309. 

cigan,  119. 

cir(i)ce,  14,  15,  17,  77,  79,  p.  8. 

circnyt,  18. 

circsocn,  18. 

clame,  219,  397,  398. 

cleopian,  117. 

clero,  48,  note  2. 

clypung,  117. 

costian,  368. 

craeftga,  393. 

crist,  243. 

Crist,  10,  239,  240,  241,  242,  243. 

cristen,  10,  11,  12,  13. 

cristendom,  19. 

Cristes  msesse,  90. 

cristnian,  13,  139. 

cyning,  185,  273,  p.  14, 

compounds,  185,  273. 

cyrran,  379. 

cyst,  387. 

D£d,  403. 

dsedbot,  386. 

dema,  203,  288,  compounds,  288. 


demend,  203. 

deofol,  317,  318,  319,  325,  327,  p.  8, 

compounds,  321,  325,  328. 

deofolcund,  328. 

deofolgield,  325. 

deofolwitga,  33,  325. 

diacon,  63. 

dimscua,  370. 

dom,  163,  408. 

domdseg,  408. 

domfeest,  220,  401. 

dream,  422,  compounds,  422. 

druncen,  344. 

druncennes,  344. 

drut,  20,  24. 

dry,  p.  10. 

drycrasft,  346. 

dryhten,  186,  275,  p.  14, 

compounds,  186,  275. 

dugub,  387. 

Eacnung,  246. 

eadig,  421. 

eadmede,  390. 

eadmedu,  390. 

eadmod,  390. 

eadmodlice,  390. 

ealdor,  192. 

ealdorman,  2. 

ealdorsacerd,  62. 

ealh,  82,  p.  11. 

ealhstedas,  82,  p.  11. 

earce,  80. 

earcnanstan,  293. 

earendel,  291. 

eastor,  93,  p.  11. 

eastormonao",  93. 

eastorniht,  93. 

eastortid,  93. 

eaSbede,  112. 

eaSmede,  390. 

eaSmedu,  390. 

eat5metto,  390. 

eaSmod,  218,  390. 

Ebreas,  Ebresc,  1. 

ece,  207,  208,  280,  compounds,  264. 

ecnes,  208. 

edwlt,  348,  compounds,  348. 

efeneardige,  264. 

efenece,  264,  p.  12. 

efenwesende,  264,  p.  12. 


146 


INDEX 


[146 


ege,  389. 

egesa,  389. 

Emmanuhel,  244. 

engel,  290,  306,  308,  309,  310,  311,  312,  316, 

318,  p.  12, 
compounds,  308,  310,  311,  313. 
engelcund,  313. 
Eostre,  93. 
eowde,  395. 
e)?elboda,  105. 

Facen,  338. 

faeder,  181,  269,  compounds,  181. 

faele,  214. 

fsmne,  20,  21,  24. 

faestan,  405. 

faesten,  405. 

faesthafolnes,  362. 

feogan,  358. 

feohglfre,  362. 

feohgitsere,  362. 

feond,  319,  327,  compounds,  319. 

feondat,  319. 

firen,  333,  compounds,  333. 

firnian,  333. 

flSsc,  340. 

folgere,  36. 

forewyrd,  171. 

forgifan,  229. 

forgifnes,  229. 

forhaefdnes,  393. 

forhycgan,  359. 

forlabdan,  370. 

forlsran,  370. 

forlatan,  229. 

forlicgan,  345. 

forscrifan,  384. 

forteon,  370. 

fortyhtan,  370. 

frasung,  368. 

frea,  188,  276,  compounds,  188,  276. 

fremsum,  213. 

fremsumnes,  213. 

freod,  236. 

freoSo,  236. 

frit5,  236. 

friSstol,  222. 

frSfor,  233. 

frowe,  20,  24. 

fruma,  183,  271,  compounds,  183,  271. 

fugel,  293. 


ful(l)wian,  139,  140. 
ful(l)wiht,  139,  141,  142. 
fulwihttld,  91,  142. 
fulwiht}?eaw,  143. 
ful(l)won,  143. 
fyrhtu,  389. 
fyrngewritu,  148. 

Gaelsa,  341. 

gal,  356. 

galferhS,  341. 

galga,  249. 

galmod,  341. 

galnes,  341. 

galscipe,  356. 

gist,  206,  294,  295,  296,  297,  298,  299,  314, 

322,  323,  325,  327,  p.  12, 
compounds,  296,  298,  314,  322,  323. 
gastlic,  49. 

gealdor,  346,  compounds,  346. 
gealgtreo,  249. 
gebed,  108. 
gebedstow,  110. 
gebelgan,  361. 
gebetan,  386. 
gebiddan,  107. 
gebletsian,  137,  225. 
gebod, 161. 
gebodscipe,  161. 
gebycgan,  261. 
gebysmerian,  348. 
gecigan,  119. 
gecoren,  396,  397. 
gecypan,  261. 
gecyrran,  379. 
gedwelian,  364. 
gedwild,  364. 
gedwola,  364. 
geeadmedan,  390. 
gefea,  424. 
geferraedan,  19. 
gefirnian,  333. 
gefulwian,  140. 
gegaderung,  19. 
gegyrnan,  123. 
gehffilan,  227. 
gehalgian,  47. 
geherian,  126. 
gehreowan,  383. 
gelaSung,  19. 
geleafa,  372,  373.  376. 


147] 


INDEX 


147 


geleafful,  12,  375. 
geleafsum,  375. 
gelefan,  374,  377. 
geleogan,  350. 
geligere,  345. 
gemsersian,  136. 
gemildsian,  234. 
gemot,  409. 
generian,  260. 
geocend,  198,  286. 
geongra,  36. 
gepalmtwigan,  114. 
gesSlig,  421. 
gesajliglic,  421. 
gesaelignes,  421. 
gesaelS,  421. 
gesegnian,  226. 
gescrifan,  384. 
gesomnung,  19. 
gespan,  370. 
gesyngian,  331. 
getreowan,  377. 
gebingian,  263. 
gej>yld,  392. 
gebyldig,  392. 
geundwendnes,  208. 

geweorSian,  130. 

gewitnes,  153. 

gewritu,  148,  p.  12. 

gewuldrian,  135. 

giefa,  compounds  of,  202,  285. 

gielp,  349,  compounds,  349. 

gielpan,  349. 

gifan,  229. 

gifnes,  229. 

gitsung,  362,  compounds,  362. 

god,  172,  173,  180,  264,  265, 

compounds,  180,  337. 

god,  224. 

godfyrht,  389. 

godgim,  256. 

godssd,  395. 

godspell,  158,  159. 

godspellian,  159,  160. 

goldhord,  255,  295. 

gyden,  174. 

gyld,  326. 

gyldan,  326. 

gylt,336. 

Hal,  227. 


haelan,  227. 

haelend,  201,  238. 

haelu,  227. 

hjeoen,  4,  5,  6,  7, 

compounds,  8,  325. 

halgian,  47. 

halig,  45,  88,  209,  295,  399. 

halignes,  46,  83,  209. 

halor,  421. 

halsian,  118. 

halsung,  118. 

hatheortnes,  361. 

heahengel,  310. 

heahf seder,  25,  26. 

heahheort,  355. 

heahmod,  355. 

hearg,  p.  11. 

hearra,  191. 

hefignes,  343. 

hel(l),  321,  327, 425,  426, 428,  p.  12, 

compounds,  321, 322, 428, 431, 432. 

hellefyr,  430. 

hellewite,  429,  p.  12. 

helm,  196,  281,  p.  14. 

heofon,  413,  p.  11. 

heofonengel,  310. 

heofonham,  418. 

heofonrice,  416. 

herenes,  127. 

herian,  126. 

hete,  358,  compounds,  358. 

hetlen,  358. 

higefrofor,  233. 

hlafmaessan  daeg,  98,  101. 

hlaford,  194,  278. 

hon,  248. 

hopa,  378. 

hopian,  378. 

hosp,  348,  compounds,  348. 

hreow,  381,  382. 

hreowan,  383. 

hreowig,  382. 

hreowigcearig,  382. 

hreowigmod,  382. 

hreowlic,  382. 

husl,  144,  145,  p.  11. 

hus(e)lbearn,  146. 
huslfset,  144,  146. 
hus(e)lwer,  146. 
hygetreow,  376. 
hyht,  378. 


148 


INDEX 


[148 


hyld,  231. 

hyldo,  231. 

hyrde,  197,  282,  p.  14,  compounds,  197. 

hyrwan,  348. 

hyspan,  348. 

Ingebed,  109. 
Isra(h)el,  1. 

Judeas,  1. 

Lac,  101,  102,  p.  11. 

laece,  292. 

laran,  104. 

lsestan,  402. 

ljewed,  49. 

lamb,  293. 

lar,  163. 

lareow,  37,  105,  283. 

latteow,  284. 

leahtor,  334,  compounds,  334. 

lean,  420,  compounds,  420. 

leas,  350. 

leasung,  350. 

leogan,  350. 

lif,  419,  420. 

lifiend,  215. 

Us,  235. 

lof,  131,  132. 

lofian,  131. 

lofmaegen,  133. 

lof  sang,  134. 

lofsum,  133. 

lomber,  293. 

Lucifer,  318. 

lufian,  388. 

lufu,  388,  p.  12,  compounds,  388. 

lust,  340,  compounds,  340. 

lyge,  350,  compounds,  350. 

lygen,  350,  compounds,  350. 

lysan,  228,  260. 

Mseden,  24. 
maeg,  20,  24. 
msegen,  387. 
msegenandettan,  120. 
msego",  20,  21,  24. 
msere,  216. 
maersian,  136. 
msesse,  92. 
msessere,  59,  101. 


mago}?egn,  37,  315. 
man,  332. 
manldel,  349. 
mansceat,  362. 
manswara,  351. 
manjwaare,  391. 
manwom,  335. 
Maria,  20,  21,  22,  24,  246. 
Marian  maesse,  92,  101. 
martira  gemynd,  95. 
martyr,  40. 
martyrdom,  42. 
martyrhad,  42. 
meowle,  20,  24. 
metod,  170,  184,  272. 
mecSel,  409. 
Michahel,  99. 
middangeard,  302. 
milde,  212,  391,  p.  12. 
mildheort,  212,  391. 
mildheortnes,  212. 
milds,  234,  391. 
mildsian,  234. 
misgedwild,  364. 
modge)?yldig,  392. 
mundbyrd,  232. 
munuc,  72. 
mynster,  85,  86. 

Neoncna  wang,  415. 
nergend,  200,  287. 
nerian,  260. 
nlj?,  357. 

Oferfylle,  344. 
oferhycgan,  359. 
oferhygd,  354. 
oferhygdig,  354. 
ofermede,  355. 
ofermedla,  355. 
ofermetto,  355. 
ofermod,  355. 
ofermodgian,  355. 
ofermodig,  355. 
ondrfedan,  389. 
onhyscan,  348. 
onlysan,  260. 
onmedla,  355. 
onscunnian,  359. 
onsecgan,  103. 
oretta,  38. 


149] 


INDEX 


149 


5rettmaecg,  38. 
orwennys,  370. 
6s,  175. 

Papa,  52,  53. 
Pater  Noster,  114. 
pentecosten,  97. 
preost,  58,  59. 
psalterium,  155. 

Raedend,  202. 
rseswa,  202. 
regol,  71. 
regolfseste,  71. 
reliquias,  96. 
rex,  274. 
rihtnes,  211. 
rihtwlsnes,  211. 
rod,  249,  250,  252. 
ryhtfremmende,  402 

Sacerd,  60,  61. 

sacerdhad,  62. 

salletan,  156. 

sanct(us),  24,  44. 

sancta  symbel,  99. 

Satan(us),  318. 

scln(ge)lac,  346. 

scippend,  182,  270. 

scrifan,  384. 

scrift,  381,  384,  385. 

scucca,  370. 

scyccan,  370. 

scyccgyld,  370. 

scyld,  337,  compounds,  337. 

scyldend,  202. 

sealm,  154. 

sealmfast,  155. 

segnian,  226. 

segnung,  226. 

seonoo",  409. 

Seraphim,  309. 

sigebroSor,  39. 

sigetiber,  103. 

sigortiber,  103. 

snytruhus,  83. 

soS,  210. 

soSfaest,  12,  210,  400. 

soSfaestnes,  210,  400. 

soSgeleafa,  375. 

sapnan, 370. 


spelboda,  30,  31,  34,  105. 

stige,  259. 

stypel,  87. 

styrend,  202. 

sunnandaeg,  89. 

sunu,  266,  268,  compounds,  268. 

suoportic,  87. 

swiomod,  355. 

symbel,  423. 

syn,  330,  compounds,  331. 

syngian,  331. 

Tacen,  255. 

tsel,  352. 

taelan,  352. 

taelnis,  352. 

tempel,  23,  78,  79,  80,  81. 

teona,  348. 

teoncwide,  348. 

tifer,  103. 

tirfaest,  220. 

tolysan,  228,  260. 

torn,  361,  compounds,  361. 

treo,  253. 

treow,  376. 

treowan,  377. 

treowloga,  365. 

tweogan,  363. 

pane,  125. 

Jjancian,  124. 

)?eaw,  387. 

Jjegn,  37,  315. 

Jjeod,  9. 

beoden,  189,  277. 

^eow,  49,  p.  13. 

Jjeowan,  100. 

beowdom,  100. 

Jjeowet,  100. 

ting,  409. 

Jringian,  263. 

J?olian,  248,  260. 

brines,  176, 177,  178,  p.  12. 

^rowere,  40,  41. 

}?r6wian,  248,  260. 

brdwung,  42,  43,  248. 

Unbeted,  386.      . 
uncyst,  338. 
ungeleaf(a),  364,  375. 
ungetreowt5,  365. 


150 


INDEX 


150 


unriht,  338,  366. 
unrihthsemed,  345. 
unsablig,  431. 
unsoSfaest,  366. 
unsoSfaestnes,  366. 
untreow,  365. 
untreowe,  365. 
un)?eaw,  338. 
upengel,  310. 
upheofon,  416. 
upstige,  259. 
utSwita,  2. 

Wair,  161. 

warfaest,  220,  401. 

waernis,  431. 

walda,  compounds  of,  187. 

wealdend,  187,  270,  278, 

compounds,  187. 

wealdor,  328. 

weallstan,  293. 

weard,  193,  278,  p.  14,  compounds,  193. 

welig,  421. 

weolme,  20. 

weorc,  403. 

weorSian,  128,  129. 

wiccraeft,  346. 

wiccungdom,  346. 

wictun,  83. 

wiflufu,  345. 

wlh,  84,  326,  p.  11. 

wlhbed,  84. 

wihgyld,  326. 


wihweoroung,  326. 

winrod,  250. 

wis,  217. 

wisb5c,  149. 

wlte,  429. 

witedom,  32. 

witega,  27,  28,  29. 

witgian,  32. 

witig,  217. 

wlenco,  356. 

wliteandet,  121. 

wohgod,  173. 

wohhSmed,  345. 

worn,  335,  compounds,  335. 

woruld,  302,  303,  304,  compounds,  305. 

woruldgltsere,  362. 

wot5bora,  31. 

wralnnes,  341. 

wuldorfaest,  220. 

wuldrian,  135. 

wundor,  260. 

wynpsalterium,  155. 

wyrd,   165,   166,   167,   168,   169,   170,   171, 

p.  11. 
wyrhta,  182,  270. 
wyrhou,  353. 

Ymen,  157. 
yrre,  260. 
yrringa,  360. 
yrsian,  360. 
yrsung,  360. 


151]  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  OLD  ENGLISH  POETRY  151 


VITA 

The  author  of  this  thesis  was  born  December  7,  1887,  at  Neufirrel, 
East-Friesia,  Germany,  from  which  country  he  emigrated  to  the  United 
States  of  America  in  1902.  After  attending  a  grade  school  at  Sterling, 
Nebraska,  for  a  short  time,  he  entered  in  January  1907  the  Preparatory 
Department  of  Wartburg  Theological  Seminary  at  Dubuque,  Iowa.  From 
1908-11  he  attended  Wartburg  College,  Clinton,  Iowa,  and  was  graduated 
with  the  degree  of  A.B.  in  the  latter  year.  He  attended  the  summer  ses- 
sion of  the  University  of  Nebraska  in  1911,  and  in  the  fall  of  the  same 
year  re-entered  Wartburg  Theological  Seminary,  finishing  the  three  years' 
theoretical  course  in  1913.  After  graduation  and  ordination  as  a  Lutheran 
minister,  the  author  served  as  state  missionary  of  Montana  for  18  months. 
He  held  a  scholarship  in  the  English  Department  of  the  University  of 
Montana  during  1914-15,  receiving  the  degree  of  A.M.  in  the  latter  year. 
During  the  school  year  1915-16  the  author  was  acting  prof essor  of  Classics 
at  Newberry  College,  Newberry,  South  Carolina.  From  1916-18  he  held 
a  fellowship  in  the  English  Department  of  the  University  of  Illinois. 


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